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Fuller was a physician who practised in Sevenoaks, Kent. Long before the discovery of microbes, Fuller recognised that diseases like measles and smallpox were caused by the 'venom' of a particular organism. He was also one of the first to recognise the specificness of an infection and immunity. Fuller collected and published the best medicines in his Pharmacopoiea, which appeared in at least 12 editions. He was also an early advocate of smallpox inoculation. 1654-06-24T00:00:00+0000| 24 Jun 1654 | | Thomas Fuller was born in Rosehill, Sussex, UKFuller | |
Fuller was an English physician who practised in Sevenoaks, Kent. Long before the discovery of microbes, Fuller recognised that diseases like measles and smallpox were caused by the 'venom' of a particular organism. He was also one of the first to recognise the specificness of an infection and immunity. Fuller collected and published the best medicines in his Pharmacopoiea, which appeared in at least 12 editions. He was also an early advocate of smallpox inoculation.
1734-09-17T00:00:00+0000| 17 Sep 1734 | | Thomas Fuller diedFuller | |
Jenner was an English physician who helped pioneer the smallpox vaccine based on his hypothesis that the pus in blisters milkmaids received from cowpox protected them from smallpox. To test out his theory in 1796 he inoculated the 8 year old son of his gardener with pus taken from the cowpox blisters of a local milkmaid. While the boy suffered a fever he showed no sign of infection with smallpox. Jenner then injected the child with smallpox material, a common method of immunisation at the time, known as variolation. Again he showed no sign of infection. Following this, Jenner tested the same technique in 23 further people. Based on his success, in 1840 the British government outlawed variolation and provided Jenner's method for free to prevent smallpox. Jenner's work laid the foundation for immunisation as a method for preventing disease and for contemporary discoveries in immunology. 1749-05-17T00:00:00+0000| 17 May 1749 | | Edward Jenner was born in Berkeley, UKJenner | |
Jenner was an English physician who helped pioneer the smallpox vaccine based on his hypothesis that the pus in blisters milkmaids received from cowpox protected them from smallpox. To test out his theory in 1796 he inoculated the 8 year old son of his gardener with pus taken from the cowpox blisters of a local milkmaid. While the boy suffered a fever he showed now sign of infection with smallpox. Jenner then injected the child with smallpox material, a common method of immunisation at the time, known as variolation. Again he showed no sign of infection. Jenner then tested out the same technique in 23 further people. Based on his success, in 1840 the British government decided to outlaw variolation and instead provide Jenner's method for free to prevent smallpox. Jenner's work laid the foundation for immunisation as a method for preventing disease and for contemporary discoveries in immunology. 1823-01-26T00:00:00+0000| 26 Jan 1823 | | Edward Jenner diedJenner | |
Mechnikov was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1908 for his discovery of phagocytes (macrophages), a type of immune cell that protects the body by ingesting harmful foreign substances like bacteria and dead or dying cells. He made the discovery in 1882 while studying an unusual group of cells that clustered around thorns he pinned into starfish larvae. Based on this work he hypothesised that
inflammation resulted from the process by which white blood cells attacked and destroyed bacteria. The scientific community took time to accept this idea. 1845-05-16T00:00:00+0000| 16 May 1845 | | Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov was born in Kharkov (now Kharkiv), Russian Empire (now Ukraine)Mechnikov | Pasteur Institute |
Richet was a physiologist who shared the 1913 Nobel Prize for Medicine for the discovery of anaphylaxis, an acute allergic reaction where extremely small doses of an allergen may cause life-threatening anaphylactic shock. This phenomenon he discovered with Paul Portier after they attempted to immunise dogs against a toxin from sea anemones. Some of these dogs developed respiratory distress and died when injected with a second dose of the toxin. Richet and Portier hypothesised this was due to reduced immunity and increased sensitivity to the toxin. Their finding provided the first evidence that the immune system could damage as well as provide protection against disease. Richet went on to help elucidate the cause of hay fever, asthma and other allergic reactions to foreign substances. 1850-08-26T00:00:00+0000| 26 Aug 1850 | | Charles R Richet was born in Paris, FranceRichet | Sorbonne University |
Kitasato was a Japanese physician and bacteriologist who helped to discover the infectious agent of bubonic plague, Pasteurella pestis (now called Yersinia pestis). The discovery was made while investigating an epidemic in Hong Kong in 1894. Kitasato was nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1901 based on his contributions to the discovery of the diphtheria antitoxin serum, which was used to prevent diphtheria. 1853-01-29T00:00:00+0000| 29 Jan 1853 | | Shibasaburo Kitasato was born in Oguni, Kumamoto, Japan
Kitasato | University of Berlin, Kitsato Institute |
Émile Roux was a physician, bacteriologist and immunologist who made his name working on diphtheria, a once fatal disease. In 1883 he helped to show that the disease was caused by a toxin secreted by the diphtheria bacillus. Based on this discovery and subsequent work by others that animals produce antibodies against the diphtheria toxin, Roux managed to develop a serum therapy to combat the disease. The treatment was proven effective in a trial conducted at the Hopital des Enfants-Malades with 300 diseased children.1853-11-17T00:00:00+0000| 17 Nov 1853 | | Pierre Paul Émile Roux was born in Confolens, FranceEmile Roux | Pasteur Institute |
Ehrlich played a significant role in the development of the first serum therapy to combat diphtheria in the 1890s and devised methods for standardising therapeutic serums. In addition he invented staining techniques for distinguishing different types of blood cells which laid the foundation for diagnosing blood disorders. In 1900 he popularised the 'magic bullet' concept which promoted the idea of developing a drug capable of killing specific disease-causing microbes, like bacteria, without harming the body itself. Nine years later he succeeded in creating Salvasan, the first drug created to target a specific pathogen and the first effective medical treatment for syphilis. Ehrlich also coined the term 'antibody' and transformed understandings of how the immune system worked. In 1908 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine on the back of this work. Despite his groundbreaking research, Ehrlich struggled to get a permanent position because of his Jewish background. 1854-03-14T00:00:00+0000| 14 Mar 1854 | | Paul Ehrlich was born in Strehlen (now Strzelin), Prussia (now Poland)Ehrlich | Strehlen, Prussia |
Wright was a bacteriologist and immunologist who pioneered the development of a vaccine against typhoid in the 1890s. Initially the British military authorities were reluctant to roll out the vaccine, but limited trials during the Boer War proved its value. Further trials conducted among 3,000 soldiers in India confirmed its efficacy and the War Office used it to vaccinate British troops at the outset of World War I. Wright also developed vaccines against enteric tuberculosis and pneumonia. He also instrumental in research to understand how blood enzymes make bacteria more susceptible to phagocytosis by white blood cells. 1861-08-10T00:00:00+0000| 10 Aug 1861 | | Almroth E Wright was born in Middleton Tyas, Yorkshire, UKWright | St Mary's Hospital |
Landsteiner was an immunologist and pathologist who has been called the founder of transfusion medicine. In 1930 he won the Nobel Prize for Medicine for his discovery of the main human blood types (A, B and O), published in 1901, and for his development of the ABO system of blood typing which enabled blood transfusion to become a safe medical procedure. In 1909 he also helped discover the microorganism responsible for poliovirus which provided the foundation for the development of the polio vaccine. He also discovered the Rh factor in 1940. This is an inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells. This can cause problems in pregnancy for women with the Rh-negative blood group whose foetus has the Rh-positive blood group. 1868-06-14T00:00:00+0000| 14 Jun 1868 | | Karl Landsteiner was born in Vienna, AustriaLandsteiner | Rockefeller Institute |
Bordet was a physician, immunologist and microbiologist who won the 1919 Nobel Prize for his discovery of two components in the blood - antibodies and complement proteins. The two components help destroy invading bacteria by rupturing the cell walls of the bacteria, a process known as bacteriolysis. Bordet made the discovery in 1895. Three years later Bordet observed that red blood cells from one animal species injected into another get destroyed by haemolysis - a process analogous to bacteriolysis. His finding led to the development of diagnostic tests that hunt for antibodies in the blood to detect infectious agents. The first one was for typhoid, developed in 1896.1870-06-13T00:00:00+0000| 13 Jun 1870 | | Jules Bordet was born in Soignies, BelgiumBordet | Pasteur Institute |
Heidelberger was one of the founders of immunochemistry, a branch of biochemistry that investigates the mammalian immune system at the molecular level. He first made his mark in 1923 when he found, with Oswald Avery, that the immune system could target bacterial sugars. The two scientists made the discovery while investigating a capsular substance that envelops pneumococcus and other species of bacteria. Their work helped determine that antibodies were proteins. It also paved the way to improving the production of more effective serum therapies for the prevention of bacterial infectious diseases like pneumonia and meningitis. 1888-04-29T00:00:00+0000| 29 Apr 1888 | | Michael Heidelberger was born in New York City, USAHeidelberger | Rockefeller Institute, Columbia University |
Antiserum preparted against human oesteogenic sarcoma in an ass and 2 dogs. Reported successful in treating 50 patients suffering from cancer of the stomach and chest wall. J Hericourt, C Richet, 'Traitement d'un cas de sarcome par la sarcome par la serotherapie', Seances Acad Sci, 120 (1895), 948-50.1895-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1895 | | Humans treated with antiserum prepared against human cancer. This established the principle of using serotherapy to fight cancerHericourt, Richet | College de France |
The vaccine was developed by William Coley, a New York surgeon, together with the pharmaceutical company Parke, Davis & Co. The vaccine contained a combination of heat-killed bacteria. 1899-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1899 | | First commercial vaccine developed for treatment of sarcomaColey | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Parke Davis & Co |
A virologist and physician, Burnet is best known for his discovery of acquired immunological tolerance and demonstrating how the body recognises the difference between self and non-self. Burnet shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1960 for this work. His research helped advance the development of vaccines, tissue transplantation, monoclonal antibodies and associated therapies. In addition, Burnett made significant contributions to the development of techniques to grow and study the influenza virus, including hemagglutination assays. Based on his study of the genetics of the virus he showed that the influenza virus recombined at a high frequency. 1899-09-03T00:00:00+0000| 3 Sep 1899 | | Frank Macfarlane Burnet born in Traralgon, Victoria, Australia
Burnet | Walter and Eliza Hall Institute |
Patients reported an alleviation of their symptoms. E von Leyden, F Blumenthal, 'Vorlaufige Mittheilungen uber einige Ergebnisse der Krebsforschung aug der I. medizinischen Klinik', Deutsche Med Wschr, 28 (1902), 637-8.1902-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1902 | | First attempt to vaccinate against cancer with a patient's own tumour tissuevon Leyden, Blumenthal | |
Boyd was an immunologist who helped to show that blood types are inherited and not influenced by the environment. Together with his wife, Lyle, Boyd undertook a worldwide survey of the distribution of blood types.1903-03-04T00:00:00+0000| 4 Mar 1903 | | William Clouser Boyd was born in Dearborn, Missouri, USABoyd | Boston University |
Snell was a major founder of immunogenetics as a discipline. He is best known for helping to identify the major histocompatibility complex, a group of genes that code for proteins found on the surface of cells that help the immune system differentiate between self and nonself cells, and demonstrating its role in tissue graft rejection. This work laid the foundation for carrying out successful transplants in both animals and humans. Snell shared the 1980 Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions'.1903-12-19T00:00:00+0000| 19 Dec 1903 | | George D Snell was born in Bradford MA, USASnell | Jackson Laboratory |
Chase was an immunologist who in the early 1940s discovered that white blood cells trigger the immune response in the body confronting a foreign invader. His finding laid to rest the belief that antibodies by themselves could protect the body from allergies and pathogens. Chase also uncovered the second arm of the immune system, known as cell-mediated immunity, paving the way to the discovery of lymphocyte cells and B and T cells.1905-09-17T00:00:00+0000| 17 Sep 1905 | | Merrill W Chase born in Providence, RI, USAChase | Rockefeller University |
Jerne shared the 1984 Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system'. He developed three important theories for immunology. Firstly, that antibodies are formed during fetal development and are present in the body from birth. Secondly, that white blood cells, lymphocytes, teach themselves to recognise the body's own substances in the thymus gland. Thirdly, he proposed the network theory which depicts the immune system as a complex self-regulating network that can turn itself on and off when needed. Jerne's work paved the way to development of monoclonal antibodies. He was the founder and director of the Basel Institute of Immunology.1911-12-23T00:00:00+0000| 23 Dec 1911 | | Niels K Jerne was born in London, United KingdomJerne | Basel Institute for Immunology |
JB Murphy, 'Studies on tissue specificity', Journal of Experimental Medicine, 19 (1914), 181-86.1914-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1914 | | Experiments by James B Murphy demonstrate that lymphocytes help animals reject grafted tumoursMurphy | Rockefeller Intitute |
The experiments involved increasing the number of lymphocytes in the blood of mice by treating them with low doses of X-rays. JB Murphy, JJ Morton, 'The effects of X-rays on the resistance to cancer in mice', Science, 42 (1915), 842. 1915-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1915 | | James B Murphy puts forward hypothesis that the nonspecific stimulation of lymphocytes could provide a cure for cancer based on experiments he and John J Morton carried out on miceMurphy, Morton | Rockefeller Institute |
Medawar was a zoologist and biologist whose studies of graft rejection demonstrated the principle of acquired immunological tolerance, the state by which substances originally considered foreign become regarded as self by the immune system. This finding laid the foundation for tissue and organ transplantation. In 1960 Medawar was awarded the Nobel Prize for the work he did in the area. 1915-02-28T00:00:00+0000| 28 Feb 1915 | | Peter Brian Medawar was born in Rio de Janeiro, BrazilMedawar | University College London |
Ehrlich played a significant role in the development of the first serum therapy to combat diphtheria in the 1890s and devised methods for standardising therapeutic serums. In addition he invented staining techniques for distinguishing different types of blood cells which laid the foundation for diagnosing blood disorders. In 1900 he popularised the 'magic bullet' concept which promoted the idea of developing a drug capable of killing specific disease-causing microbes, like bacteria, without harming the body itself. Nine years later he succeeded in creating Salvasan, the first drug created to target a specific pathogen and the first effective medical treatment for syphilis. Ehrlich also coined the term 'antibody' and transformed understandings of how the immune system worked. In 1908 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine on the back of this work. Despite his groundbreaking research, Ehrlich struggled to get a permanent position because of his Jewish background.1915-08-20T00:00:00+0000| 20 Aug 1915 | | Paul Ehrlich diedEhrlich | Goettingen University |
The trials were carried out by James B Murphy and colleagues at the Rockefeller Institute. 1916-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1916 - 1922 | | Disappointing results reported from clinical trials treating breast cancer patients with low doses of X-ray radiation following tumour removal, discrediting the theory that stimulation of lymphocytes could help cure cancer. Murphy | Rockefeller Institute |
Mechnikov was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1908 for his discovery of phagocytes (macrophages), a type of immune cell that projects the body by ingesting harmful foreign substances like bacteria and dead or dying cells. He made the discovery in 1882 while studying an unusual group of cells that clustered around thorns he pinned into starfish larvae. Based on this work he hypothesised that inflammation resulted from the process by which white blood cells attacked and destroyed bacteria. The scientific community took time to accept this idea.1916-07-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Jul 1916 | | Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov diedMechnikov | Pasteur Institute |
Dausset was an immunologist. In 1952 he noticed that white blood cells taken from patients who had received blood transfusions agglutinated when mixed with antibodies. He realised this was due to the genetic differences between donors and recipients. Eight years later he discovered the first leukocyte antigen, an important marker found on the surface of cells that helps the immune system recognise foreign substances. He subsequently worked out the complex relationship between tissue compatibility and graft survival. In 1980 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on tissue typing which is essential to the success of transplants. 1916-10-19T00:00:00+0000| 19 Oct 1916 | | Jean Dausset was born in Toulouse, FranceDausset | University of Paris |
Murray was a plastic surgeon. He performed the first successful kidney transplant between identical twins in 1954. The operation lasted five and half hours and involved the transplantation of a healthy kidney from Robert Herrick into his twin brother, Richard, who was dying of chronic nephritis. Four years later Murray performed the first successful transplant from a non-identical donor and in 1962 the first cadaveric renal transplant. In 1990 Murray shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease.' 1919-04-01T00:00:00+0000| 1 Apr 1919 | | Joseph Murray was born in Milford MA, USAJoseph Murray | Brigham and Women's Hospital |
Thomas was a physician who was a major pioneer of cell and organ transplantation. He is best known for his development of bone marrow transplants, which became a life-saving treatment for blood cancers. Donnall developed the technique on the back of research carried out in the Manhattan Project which showed that 'factors' released by spleen cells stimulated the recovery of irradiated bone marrow. In 1993 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine on the basis of this research.1920-03-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Mar 1920 | | Edward Donnall Thomas was born in Mart, Texas, USAThomas | Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center |
Benacerraf was an immunologist who, based on experiments with guinea pigs in the 1960s, provided the pathway to understand how T lymphocytes recognise structures on the cell surface of foreign substances that invade the body. He showed that immune responses are controlled by genes that exist in a certain area on a certain chromosome. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1980 for his discoveries of genes that regulate immune responses and the role some of these genes play in autoimmune disorders. Born in Venezuaela and brought up in Paris, Bernaceraf and his parents were forced to move to United States in 1940 because of their Jewish heritage. 1920-10-29T00:00:00+0000| 29 Oct 1920 | | Baruj Benacerraf was born in Caracas, VenezuelaBenacerraf | Harvard Medical School |
Koshland was an immunologist who was a major pioneer in the field of antibodies. Her work was instrumental in showing antibodies to be discrete entities and knowledge about the origins of antibody specificity. In the 1960s, she demonstrated that the efficiency and effectiveness with which antibodies can combat foreign invaders is determined by their different amino acid compositions. By the 1990s she had unravelled the process that accompanies and directs B cell activation and maturation. A major role-model for other women scientists, Koshland was nearly not awarded her PhD because her professor thought it would be a waste because she was pregnant. 1921-10-25T00:00:00+0000| 25 Oct 1921 | | Marian E Koshland was born in New Haven, Connecticut, USAKoshland | |
Good was a physician and scientific researcher whose work on the cellular mechanisms of immunity earned him the reputation as one of the founders of modern immunology. In 1962 he helped demonstrate the two-component system of immunity. The first consisted of T cells, produced by the thymus gland, which he showed were important players in cell-mediated immunity. The second were the B cells, produced by the bone marrow, which he identified as responsible for producing antibodies. Three years later he demonstrated the important role tonsils play in the immune system. In addition to these landmark discoveries, he worked out, through experiments on mice, the crucial role of T cells in the rejection of skin allografts. He used this finding to perform the first successful bone marrow transplant between persons who were not identical twins. 1922-05-21T00:00:00+0000| 21 May 1922 | | Robert A Good was born in Crosby, Minnesota, USAGood | University of Minnesota |
Askonas was a leading figure in immunology whose work helped to establish the basic mechanisms and components of immune system. Together with colleagues she developed one of the first systems for the cloning of antibody-forming B cells in vivo, some of the earliest monoclonal antibodies. She was also one of the first scientists to isolate and clone virus specific T lymphocytes, laying the foundation for defining different influenza sub-sets and improving vaccines.1923-04-01T00:00:00+0000| 1 Apr 1923 | | Brigitte Askonas was born in Vienna, AustriaAskonas | Vienna |
Milstein was an Argentinian biochemist. Together with Georges Kohler, Milstein developed the first unlimited supply of long-lasting monoclonal antibodies. Their technique now underpins the development and application of many diagnostics and therapeutics. Kohler and Milstein devised the method as part of their search for a tool to investigate how the immune system can make so many different kinds antibodies, each able to bind to a highly specific receptor on foreign substances that invade the body.
1927-10-08T00:00:00+0000| 8 Oct 1927 | | Cesar Milstein was born in Bahia Blanca, ArgentinaMilstein | Laboratory of Molecular Biology |
E Witebsky, 'Disponibilitiit und Spezifitat alkoholloslicher Strukturen von Organen und bosartigen
Geschwulsten', Zeitschrift fur Imrnunitaetsforschung, Allergie und Klinische Immunologie' 62 (1929), 35-73. 1929-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1929 | | First molecular marker, antigen, identified on a tumour, laying foundation for use of antibodies to diagnose and treat cancerWitebsky | University of Heidelberg |
Founded by Clarence Little, one of the leading researchers into genetic differences governing the rejection of foreign tissues. 1929-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1929 | | Jackson Memorial Laboratories established to develop inbred strains of mice to study the genetics of cancer and other diseases | Jackson Memorial Laboratoroies |
R Pearl, 'Cancer and tuberculosis', American Journal of Hygiene, 9 (1929), 97-149. 1929-04-01T00:00:00+0000| April 1929 | | Autopsies carried out on tuberculosis patients show them less likely to have contracted cancerPearl | Johns Hopkins University |
Edelman was a biologist renowned for his research on antibodies. His research helped determine the chemical structure of antibodies in the early 1960s. It showed that antibodies were made up of two light and heavy chains linked together by disulfide bonds. The breakthrough immediately galvanised feverish activity in all fields of immunological science, paving the way to the development of antibodies for both diagnostics and therapy. Edelman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1972 for his work.1929-07-01T00:00:00+0000| 1 Jul 1929 | | Gerald M Edelman was born in New York NY, USAEdelman | Rockefeller University |
Miller was an immunologist who demonstrated the importance of the thymus in protecting the body against infections and rejecting foreign tissues. Prior to this the thymus was thought to have no function. Miller also identified two major subsets of lymphocytes (T and B cells) and that these interacted to allow normal antibody production. He later showed that T cells are produced by the thymus. In 1963 he provided the first evidence that thymus-derived immune cells can provide protection against certain tumours. This laid an important stepping stone in the development of cancer immunotherapy. 1931-04-02T00:00:00+0000| April 1931 | | Jacques F.A.P. Miller was born in Nice, FranceMiller | Walter and Eliza Hall Institute |
Kitasato was a Japanese physician and bacteriologist who helped to discover the infectious agent of bubonic plague, Pasteurella pestis (now called Yersinia pestis). The discovery was made while investigating an epidemic in Hong Kong in 1894. Kitasato was nominated for the Nobel Prize in 1901 based on his contributions to the discovery of the diphtheria antitoxin serum, which was used to prevent diphtheria. 1931-06-13T00:00:00+0000| 13 Jun 1931 | | Shibasaburo Kitasato diedKitasato | University of Berlin, Kitsato Institute |
Émile Roux was a French physician, bacteriologist and immunologist who made his name working on diphtheria, a once fatal disease. In 1883 he helped to show that the disease was caused by a toxin secreted by the diphtheria bacillus. Based on this discovery and subsequent work by others that animals produce antibodies against the diphtheria toxin, Roux managed to develop a serum therapy to combat the disease. The treatment was proven effective in a trial conducted at the Hopital des Enfants-Malades with 300 diseased children.1933-11-03T00:00:00+0000| 3 Nov 1933 | | Pierre Paul Émile Roux diedEmile Roux | Pasteur Institute |
Richet was a French physiologist who shared the 1913 Nobel Prize for Medicine for the discovery of anaphylaxis, an acute allergic reaction where extremely small doses of an allergen may cause life-threatening anaphylactic shock. This phenomenon he discovered with Paul Portier after they attempted to immunise dogs against a toxin from sea anemones. Some of these dogs developed respiratory distress and died when injected with a second dose of the toxin. Richet and Portier hypothesised this was due to reduced immunity and increased sensitivity to the toxin. Their finding provided the first evidence that the immune system could damage as well as provide protection against disease. Richet went on to help elucidate the cause of hay fever, asthma and other allergic reactions to foreign substances.1935-12-04T00:00:00+0000| 4 Dec 1935 | | Charles R Richet diedRichet | Sorbonne University |
Klinman was an immunologist who developed the splenic focus assay, a tool that allowed analysis of antibody production derived from single clones of B cells. He used the tool to analyse immune tolerance and immune responses to influenza. In addition he invented the splenic fragment system, a technique that helped generate some of earliest monoclonal antibodies against viral antigens and cancer. 1937-03-23T00:00:00+0000| 23 Mar 1937 | | Norman Klinman was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USAKlinman | Wistar Institute, University of Pennsylvania |
Tonegawa is a Japanese molecular biologist who received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1987 for discovering how the immune system genetically changes the body's antibodies to counter different foreign invaders. Based on experiments he began on mice in 1976, he demonstrated that genes in mature B cells move around, recombine and get deleted to form the diversity of the variable region of antibodies. 1939-09-06T00:00:00+0000| 6 Sep 1939 | | Susumu Tonegawa was born in Nagoya, JapanTonegawa | Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
The mice were developed by George Snell. 1940-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1940 | | The first cogenic line of inbred mouse strains were developed, which helped determine the major histocompatibility complex, a set of genes that code for proteins found on the surfaces of cells which help the immune system recognise foreign substances. Snell | Jackson Laboratory |
MK Barrett, 'The influence of genetic constitution upon the induction of resistance to transplantable tumors', Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 2 (1940), 387-93.1940-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1940 | | Inbred strains of mice bred at Jackson Memorial Laboratory showed that resistance to transplanted tumours were due to body's resistance to genetically different tissueBarrett | Jackson Memorial Laboratoroies |
Doherty was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1996 for helping to discover how T cells recognise virus infected cells and showing the role of the major histocompatability complex in fighting the virus. His research is currently directed towards understanding and preventing the severe consequences of influenza virus infection. 1940-10-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Oct 1940 | | Peter C Doherty was born in Brisbane, AustraliaDoherty | St Jude Children's Research Hospital |
Landsteiner was an Austrian-American immunologist and pathologist who has been called the founder of transfusion medicine. In 1930 he won the Nobel Prize for Medicine for his discovery of the main human blood types (A, B and O), published in 1901, and for his development of the ABO system of blood typing which enabled blood transfusion to become a safe medical procedure. In 1909 he also helped discover the microorganism responsible for poliovirus which provided the foundation for the development of the polio vaccine. He also discovered the Rh factor in 1940. This is an inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells. This can cause problems in pregnancy for women with the Rh-negative blood group whose foetus has the Rh-positive blood group.1943-06-26T00:00:00+0000| 26 Jun 1943 | | Karl Landsteiner diedLandsteiner | Rockefeller Institute |
Levinsky was an immunologist who specialised in immunodeficiency diseases. In 1979 he performed Britain's first successful bone marrow transplant at Great Ormond Street in London with Christine Kinnon and Adrian Thrasher. His work laid the pathway to the discovery of the genetic basis of several primary immunodeficiency diseases. He was one of the first scientists in the UK to obtain funding to conduct clinical trials using gene therapy to treat fatal immunodeficiency conditions. 1943-10-16T00:00:00+0000| 16 Oct 1943 | | Roland Levinsky was born in Bloemfontein, South AfricaLevinsky | Great Ormond Street Hospital, Institute of Child Health, University College London |
Zinkernagel is an immunologist and pathologist who shared the 1996 Nobel Prize for Medicine with Peter Doherty for discovering how the immune system distinguishes between virus infected cells and normal cells. This was based on experiments they carried out in mice in the 1970s to understand how the immune system protects against infection by the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, which can cause meningitis. As a result of these experiments they discovered that white blood cells, known as cytotoxic T lymphocytes (or cytotoxic T cells) from an infected mouse would only destroy a virus-infected cell from another mouse if both mice came from genetically identical strains. They found that T cells need to recognise two major receptors found on the surface of infected and normal cells which signalled whether they were foreign or self molecules. This provided for a new understanding of the general mechanism of cellular immunity.1944-01-06T00:00:00+0000| 6 Jan 1944 | | Rolf M Zinkernagel was born in Basel, SwitzerlandZinkernagel | University of Zurich |
Waldmann is an immunologist who demonstrated how monoclonal antibodies could induce tolerance to foreign proteins and transplanted tissues. He and his team developed the first humanised monoclonal antibody (alemtuzumab) which is now used for combating leukaemia, preventing transplant rejection and treating autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis and vasculitis.
1945-02-27T00:00:00+0000| 27 Feb 1945 | | Herman Waldmann was born in LebanonWaldmann | Cambridge University, Oxford University |
Wright was a British bacteriologist and immunologist who pioneered the development of a vaccine against typhoid in the 1890s. Initially the British military authorities were reluctant to roll out the vaccine, but limited trials during the Boer War proved its value. Further trials conducted among 3,000 soldiers in India confirmed its efficacy and the War Office used it to vaccinate British troops at the outset of World War I. Wright also developed vaccines against enteric tuberculosis and pneumonia. He also instrumental in research to understand how blood enzymes make bacteria more susceptible to phagocytosis by white blood cells.1947-04-30T00:00:00+0000| 30 Apr 1947 | | Almroth E Wright diedWright | St Mary's Hospital |
Severity of GvHD in humans unforeseen, and seemingly insurmountable 1960-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1960 | | Bone marrow transplants being undermined by immunological reactions (especially graft-versus-host-disease (GvHD))Thomas | Bassett Medical Center |
Bordet was a Belgian physician, immunologist and microbiologist who won the 1919 Nobel Prize for his discovery of two components in the blood - antibodies and complement proteins. The two components help destroy invading bacteria by rupturing the cell walls of the bacteria, a process known as bacteriolysis. Bordet made the discovery in 1895. Three years later Bordet observed that red blood cells from one animal species injected into another get destroyed by haemolysis - a process analogous to bacteriolysis. His finding led to the development of diagnostic tests that hunt for antibodies in the blood to detect infectious agents. The first one was for typhoid, developed in 1896. 1961-04-06T00:00:00+0000| 6 Apr 1961 | | Jules Bordet diedBordet | Pasteur Institute |
The proceedure was performed by physician-scientist Robert Good to treat boy born with severe combined immunodeficiency. 1968-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1968 | | First successful bone marrow transplant from a siblingGood | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center |
The observation was made by Hugh McDevitt and colleagues using two methods of genetic mapping to determine the immune response in immunised mice. The work suggested predictable, inherited susceptibility to some diseases. It was published in HO McDevitt, BD Deak, D Shreffler, J Klein, JH Stimpfling, GD Snell, 'Genetic control of the immune response', Journal of Experimental Medicine, 135 (1972), 1259-78. 1972-02-07T00:00:00+0000| 7 Feb 1972 | | Immune response genes discoveredMcDevitt, Deak, Shreffler, Klein, Stimpfling, Snell | Stanford University, University of Michigan, Jackson Laboratory |
O Stutman, 'Tumor development after 3-methylcholanthrene in immunologically deficient athymic-nude mice', Science, 183 (1974), 534-6.1974-02-08T00:00:00+0000| 8 Feb 1974 | | Immune surveillance theory that immune system provides protection against cancer discredited by research showing that 'Nude' mice lacking immune system function no more likely to develop tumours than normal miceStutman | Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center |
R Kiessling, E Klein, H Pross, H Wigzell, 'Natural” killer cells in the mouse. II. Cytotoxic cells with specificity for mouse Moloney leukemia cells. Characteristics of the killer cell', European Journal of Immunology, 5 (1975), 117-121.1975-02-01T00:00:00+0000| February 1975 | | Natural killer cell identified in mice and shown to be important part of immune systemKiessling, Klein, Pross, Wigzell | Karolinska Institute |
M Jondal, H Pross, 'Surface markers on human B and T lymphocytes, Cytotoxicity against cell lines as a functional marker for lymphocyte subpopulations', International Journal of Cancer, 15 (1975) 15, 596-605. 1975-04-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Apr 1975 | | Human natural killer cell isolatedJondal, Pross | Karolinska Institute |
GT Stevenson, F K Stevenson, 'Antibody to a molecularly defined antigen confined to a tumour cell surface', Nature, 254 (1975), 714-16.1975-04-24T00:00:00+0000| 24 Apr 1975 | | Discovery of unique molecular marker, idiotype, on blood cancer cells, opening new avenue for cancer diagnosis and therapyStevenson | Tenovus Research Laboratory |
EA Carswell, LJ Old, RL Kassel, S Green, N Fiore, B Williamson, 'An endotoxin-induced serum factor that causes necrosis of tumors', Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 72/9 (1975), 3666-70.1975-09-01T00:00:00+0000| September 1975 | | Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) was discovered. It was the first immune molecule shown to kill cancer cellsCarswell, Old, Kassel, S.Green, Fiore, Williamson | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center |
DA Morgan, FW Ruscetti, RC. Gallo, 'Selective in vitro growth of T lymphocytes from normal human bone marrows', Science, 193 (1976), 1007-08. 1976-09-10T00:00:00+0000| 10 Sep 1976 | | Discovery of first T cell growth factor, later named Interleukin-2 (IL-2)Morgan, Ruscetti, Gallo | Litton Bioethics Research Laboratories, National Cancer Institute |
The work was conducted by a team led by Brigette Askonas. It was published in AJ McMichael, A Ting, HJ Zweerink, BA Askonas, 'HLA restriction of cell-mediated lysis of influenza virus-infected human cells', Nature, 270/5637 (1977), 524-6; AJ McMichael, BA Askonas, 'Influenza virus-specific cytotoxic T cells in man; induction and properties of the cytotoxic cell', European Journal Immunolology, 8 (1978), 705-11.1977-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1977 - 1978 | | Cytolytic T cells shown to recognise multiple subtypes of viruses, including influenza virusesMcMichael, Ting, Zweerink, Askonas | National Institute for Medical Research |
JH Robinson, JJT Owen, 'Generation of T-cell function in organ culture of foetal mouse thymus I. Mitogen responsiveness', Clin Exp Immunol 23 (1977), 347-54.1977-02-01T00:00:00+0000| February 1977 | | Scientists find a way to generate T cells in thymic tissue in test tubes, paving the way study mechanisms underlying the regulation of T cell developmentRobinson, Owen | University of Newcastle upon Tyne |
AW Burghess, J Camakaris, D Metcalf, 'Purification and properties of colony-stimulating factor from mouse lung conditioned medium', Journal Biol Chem, 252 (1977), 1998-2003.1977-03-25T00:00:00+0000| 25 Mar 1977 | | Discovery of Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). This plays an important role in the immune system and the process of inflammation. Burghess, Camakaris, Metcalf | Walter and Eliza Hall Institute |
FK Stevenson, E V elliott, G T Stevenson, 'Some effects of leukaemic B lymphocytes of antibodies to defined regions of their surface immunoglobulin', Immunology 3 (1977), 54-9.1977-04-01T00:00:00+0000| 1 Apr 1977 | | Development of first anti-idiotype antibodies. These are shown to activate immune defense cells to attack tumour cells in guinea-pigsStevenson, Elliott | Tenovus Research Laboratory |
Six groups of investigators working independently from each other made the discovery. Those involved in the work included Lionel Crawford and David Lane; Albert Deleo and Lloyd Old; and Arnold Levine. 1979-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1979 | | The first tumour suppressor gene was discovered, known as p53Crawford, Lane, Deleo, Old, Levine | |
EA Grimm, A Mazumder, HZ Zhang, SA Rosenberg, 'Lymphokine-activated killer cell phenomenon', Journal Experimental Medicine, 155 (1982), 1823-41.1982-06-01T00:00:00+0000| June 1982 | | Steven Rosenberg and colleagues first describe lymphokine-activated killer cellsGrimm, Mazumder, Zhang, Rosenberg | National Cancer Institute |
JP Allison, BW McIntyre, D Bloch, 'Tumor-specific antigen of murine T-lymphoma defined with monoclonal antibody', Journal Immunology, 129 (1982), 2293.1982-11-01T00:00:00+0000| November 1982 | | James Allison and collegues use monoclonal antibody to provide first biochemical description of tumour specific antigen of murine T-lymphomaAllison, McIntyre, Bloch | University of Texas System Cancer Center |
A N Houghton, M Eisinger, A P Albino, J G Cairncross, L J Old, 'Surface antigens of melanocytes and melanomas. Markers of melanocyte differentiation and melanoma subsets', Journal Experimental Medicine, 156/6 (1982), 1755-66.1982-12-01T00:00:00+0000| 1 Dec 1982 | | First molecular markers, antigens, identified in melanoma tumours. These markers are now targeted by cancer drugsHoughton, Eisinger, Albino, Cairncross, Old | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center |
Based on investigation of blood drawn from AIDS patients who developed Kaposi sarcoma, a cancer caused by a virus. The research was carried out by Susan Krown and Bijan Safai.1983-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1983 | | Link drawn between immune deficiency and cancer | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center |
GC Bosma, RP Custer, MJ Bosma, 'A severe combined immunodeficiency mutation in the mouse', Nature, 301 (1983), 527-30. 1983-02-10T00:00:00+0000| 10 Feb 1983 | | Discovery of mouse strain with severe combined immune deficiency, providing valuable research model for investigating diseases like cancer and HIVBosma, Custer | Fox Chase Cancer Center |
T Taniguchi et al, 'Structure and expression of a cloned cDNA for human interleukin-2', Nature, 302 (1983), 305-10.1983-03-24T00:00:00+0000| 24 Mar 1983 | | First cloning of Interleukin 2 (Il-2)Taniguchi, Matsui, Fujita, Takaoka, Kashmina, Yoshimoto, Hamuro | Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Ajinomoto Co Inc |
J Kappler et al, 'The major histocompatibility complex-restricted antigen receptor on T cells in mouse and man', Cell, 35 (1983), 295-02. 1983-11-01T00:00:00+0000| November 1983 | | A team of researchers including Philippa Marrack, John Kappler and James P Allison identified the first T cell antigen receptorKappler, Kubo, Haskins, Hannum, Marrack, Pigeon, McIntyre, Allison, Trowbridge | University of Colorado, University of Texas System Cancer Center, National Jewish Hospital and Research Cener, Salk Institute |
C Czerkinsky, L Nilsson, H Nygren, O Ouchterlony, A Tarkowski, 'A solid-phase enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay for enumeration of specific antibody-secreting cells', Journal of Immunology Methods, 65/1-2 (1983), 109-21.1983-12-16T00:00:00+0000| 16 Dec 1983 | | New method published for measuring antigen-specific T cell responses enabling clinical trial immune monitoringCzerkinsky, Nilsson, Nygren, Ouchterlony, Tarkowski | University of Goteborg |
A Knuth, B Danowski, HF Oettgen, LJ Old, 'T cell-mediated cytotoxicity against malignant melanoma', Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 81 (1984), 3511-15. 1984-06-01T00:00:00+0000| June 1984 | | First clinical experiments demonstrate the possibility of training T cells to attack tumoursKnuth, Danowski, Oettgen, Old | Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center |
PJ Maddon et al, Cell, 42 (1985), 93-104; Littman et al, Cell, 40 (1985), 237-46. 1985-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1985 | | T cell surface proteins CD4 and CD8 cloned Maddon, Littman, Godfrey, Maddon Chess, Axel | Columbia University |
An Australian virologist and physician, Burnet is best known for his discovery of acquired immunological tolerance and demonstrating how the body recognises the difference between self and non-self. Burnet shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1960 for this work. His research helped advance the development of vaccines, tissue transplantation, monoclonal antibodies and associated therapies. In addition, Burnett made significant contributions to the development of techniques to grow and study the influenza virus, including hemagglutination assays. Based on his study of the genetics of the virus he showed that the influenza virus recombined at a high frequency. 1985-08-31T00:00:00+0000| 31 Aug 1985 | | Frank Macfarlane Burnet diedBurnet | Walter and Eliza Hall Institute |
SA Rosenberg et al, 'Observations on the systemic administration of autologous lymphokine-activated killer cells and recombinant interleukin-2 to patients with metastatic cancer', New England Journal of Medicine, 313 (1985), 1485-92.1985-12-05T00:00:00+0000| December 1985 | | IL-2 based immunotherapy shown to reduce tumours in patients with melanoma and renal cell cancerRosenberg | National Cancer Institute |
MT Lotze, AE Chang, CA Seipp, C Simpson, JT Vetto, AS Rosenberg, 'High-dose recombinant interleukin 2 in the treatment of patients with disseminated cancer', JAMA, 256 (1986), 3117-24. 1986-12-12T00:00:00+0000| December 1986 | | Anti-tumour responses observed in 3 out of 10 patients given high-doses of Interleukin-2 (IL-2) Rosenberg, Lotze, Chang, Seipp, Simpson, Vetto | National Cancer Institute |
The research was led by Thierry Boon and Etienne De Plaen at the Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Belgium1987-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1987 - 1989 | | Scientists lay the foundation for the cloning of human tumour antigens recognised by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell that kills cancer cellsDe Plaen, Boon | Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research |
The clones were isolated from the blood of melanoma patient with long-term remission following vaccination with irradiated mutagenized autologous tumor cells. M Hein et al, 'Production of stable cytolytic T-cell clones directed against autologous human melanoma', International Journal of Cancer, 39 (1987), 390-96. 1987-03-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Mar 1987 | | First stable human anti-tumour cytotoxic T cell clones isolated and maintained in cultureHerin, Lemoine, Weynants, Vessiere, Van Pel, Knuth, Devos, Boon | Ludwig Institute |
Z Dembi et al, 'Transfection of the CD8 gene enhances T-cell recognition', Nature, 326 (1987), 510-11.1987-04-02T00:00:00+0000| April 1987 | | CD8 coreceptor proven to be actively involved in antigen recognition by killer T cellsDembic, Haas, Zamoyska, Parnes, Steinmetz, von Boehmer | Basel Institute of Immunology |
The experiments, carried out in mice by Brigette Askobas and her colleagues, showed that T cells transferred into RSV infected mice showed that the T cells could protect against viral replication, eliminating residual virus from immunosuppressed mice. It also showed that T cells could at the same time cause enhanced lung disease that could be leathal. MJ Cannon, EJ Stott, G Taylor, BA Askonas, 'Clearance of persistent respiratory syncytial virus infections in immunodeficient mice following transfer of primed T cells', Immunology, 62 (1987), 133-38; MJ Cannon, PJ Openshaw, BA Askonas, 'Cytotoxic T cells clear virus but augment lung pathology in mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus', Journal Experimental Medicine, 168/3 (1988), 1163-8.1987-04-30T00:00:00+0000| 1987 - 1988 | | Mice experiments showed T cells to be double-edged sword in clearing persistent infections with respiratory syncytial virusCannon, Stott, Taylor, Askonas, Openshaw | National Institute for Medical Research |
JF Brunet et al, 'A new member of the immunoglobulin superfamily--CTLA-4', Nature 328 (1987), 267-70. 1987-07-16T00:00:00+0000| July 1987 | | Identification of the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4)Brunet, Denizot, Luciani, Roux-Dosseto, Suzan, Mattei, Golstein | INSERM-CNRS |
Medawar was a zoologist and biologist whose work on skin grafts demonstrated the principle of acquired immunological tolerance, the state by which substances originally considered foreign become regarded as self by the immune system. His work helped improve the success of tissue and organ transplants. In 1960 Medawar was awarded the Nobel Prize for the work he did in the area. 1987-10-02T00:00:00+0000| 2 Oct 1987 | | Peter Medawar diedMedawar | University College London |
C Doyle, JL Strominger, 'Interaction between CD4 and class II MHC molecules mediates cell adhesion', Nature, 330 (1987), 256-9.1987-11-19T00:00:00+0000| November 1987 | | First evidence provided for the interaction between the surface molecule CD4 and major histocompatibility class IIDoyle, Strominger | Harvard University |
G Degiovanni et al, European Journal Immunology, 18 (1988+), 671-6; Knuth et al, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 86 (1989), 2804-08; Van den Eynde et al, International Journal of Cancer, 15 /44 (1989), 634-40.
1988-05-01T00:00:00+0000| May 1988 - Oct 1989 | | Cytotoxic T lymphocytes shown to recognise distinct surface markers on human melanomaWolfel, Knuth, Degiovanni, Van den Eynde, Hainaut, Boon | Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research |
CE Rudd, JM Trevillyan, JD Dasgupta, LL Wong, SF Schlossman, 'The CD4 receptor is complexed in detergent lysates to a protein-tyrosine kinase (Pp58) from human T lymphocytes', Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 85 (1988), 5190-94.1988-07-01T00:00:00+0000| July 1988 | | Biochemical initiators of T Cell activitation, CD4 and CD8-p56, discoveredRudd, Trevillyan, Dasupta, Wong, Schlossman | Dana-Faber Cancer Institute, Harvard University, Tech University |
1988-07-14T00:00:00+0000| 1988 - 1989 | | First evidence discovered of a physical link between oncoproteins and tumour suppressors | |
P Dariavach, MG Mattei, P Golstein, MP Lefranc, 'Human Ig superfamily CTLA-4 gene: chromosomal localization and identity of protein sequence between murine and human CTLA-4 cytoplasmic domains', European Journal Immunology, 18 (1988), 1901-05.1988-12-01T00:00:00+0000| December 1988 | | Scientists report cloning the gene for the human cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen (CTLA-4)Dariavach, Mattei, Golstein, Lefranc | INSERM-CNRS |
CV Thompson, T Lindsten, JA Ledbetter, SL Kunkel, SA Young, SG Emerson, JM Leiden, CL June, 'CD28 activation pathway regulates the production of multiple T-cell-derived lymphokines/cytokines', Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A , 86 (1989),1333-7.1989-02-01T00:00:00+0000| February 1989 | | Scientists demonstrate the importance of CD28, a cell surface molecule found on T-cells, for the activation and survival of T cellsThompson, Lindsten, Ledbetter, Kunkel, Young, Emerson, Leiden, June | Howard Hughes Medical Institute |
M Kobayashi, L Fitz, M Ryan, RM Hewick, SC Clark, S Chan, R Loudon, F Sherman, B Perussia, G Trinchieri, ' Identification and purification of natural killer cell stimulatory factor (NKSF), a cytokine with multiple biologic effects on human lymphocytes', Journal Expermental Medicine', 170 (1989), 827-45.1989-09-01T00:00:00+0000| September 1989 | | Giorgio Trinchieri and colleagues identified interleukin-12 (IL-12), a cytokine that helps regulate the body’s resistance to infections and cancerKobayashi, Fitz, Ryan, Hewick, Clark, Chan, Loudon, Sherman, Perussia, Trinchieri | Wistar Institute |
G Gross, T Waks, Z Eshhar, 'Expression of immunoglobulin-T-cell receptor chimeric molecules as functional receptors with antibody-type specificity (chimeric genes/antibody variable region)', Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 86 (1989), 10024-8.1989-12-01T00:00:00+0000| December 1989 | | First use of genetically engineered T cells to redirect T cells to recognise and attack tumour cellsGross, Waks, Eshhar | Weizmann Institute |
The approval was given based on results from a clinical trial carried out by Harry Herr and Herbert Oettgen. The BCG vaccine stimulates an immune response that targets both the tuberculosis bacteria and bladder cancer cells. 1990-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 1990 | | US FDA approved BCG, a bacterial vaccine against tuberculosis, to treat early stage bladder cancer. It was the first FDA approved immunotherapyHerr, Oettgen | Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center |
Heidelberger was one of the founders of immunochemistry, a branch of biochemistry that investigates the mammalian immune system at the molecular level. He first made his mark in 1923 when he found, with Oswald Avery, that the immune system could target bacterial sugars. The two scientists made the discovery while investigating a capsular substance that envelops pneumococcus and other species of bacteria. Their work helped determine that antibodies were proteins. It also paved the way to improving the production of more effective serum therapies for the prevention of bacterial infectious like pneumonia and meningitis.1991-06-25T00:00:00+0000| 25 Jun 1991 | | Michael Heidelberger died in New York City, USAHeidelberger | Rockefeller Institute, Columbia University |
G Dranoff, E Jaffee, A Lazenby, P Golumbek, H Levitsky, K Brose, V Jackson, H Hamada, D Pardoll, RC Mulligan, 'Vaccination with irradiated tumor cells engineered to secrete murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor stimulates potent, specific, and long-lasting anti-tumor immunity', Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 90 (1993), 3539–43.1993-04-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Apr 1993 | | Immune molecule, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor or GM-CSF, discovered to strengthen immunity against tumours Dranoff, Jaffee, Lazenby, Golumbek, Levitsky, Brose, Jackson, Hamada, Pardoll, Mulligan | Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
A Bendelac et al, Science, 263 (1994), 1774-78; A Bendelac et al, Science, 268 (1995), 863-5. 1994-03-25T00:00:00+0000| 1994 - 1995 | | Identification and characterisation of the natural killer T cell, a lymphocyte able to bind and kill certain tumour and virus-infected cellsBendelac | University of Chicago |
Jerne shared the 1984 Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'theories concerning the specificity in development and control of the immune system'. He developed three important theories for immunology. Firstly, that antibodies are formed during fetal development and are present in the body from birth. Secondly, that white blood cells, lymphocytes, teach themselves to recognise the body's own substances in the thymus gland. Thirdly, he proposed the network theory which depicts the immune system as a complex self-regulating network that can turn itself on and off when needed. Jerne's work paved the way to development of monoclonal antibodies. He was the founder and director of the Basel Institute of Immunology.1994-10-07T00:00:00+0000| 7 Oct 1994 | | Niels Kaj Jerne diedJerne | Basel Institute for Immunology |
S Sakaguchi, N Sakaguchi, M Asano, M Itoh, M Toda, 'Immunologic self-tolerance maintained by activated T cells expressing IL-2 receptor alpha-chains (CD25)', Journal Immunology, 155 (1995), 1151-64. 1995-08-01T00:00:00+0000| 1 Aug 1995 | | Identification of regulatory T cells (CD4+CD25+) and their role in protecting against autoimmunity | |
DR Leach, MF Krummel, JP Allison, 'Enchancement of antitumor immunity by CTLA-4 blockade', Science, 271/5256 (1996), 1734-36. The discovery laid the foundation for the development immune checkpoint inhibitor drugs to unleash the immune system's destruction of cancer. 1996-03-22T00:00:00+0000| 22 Mar 1996 | | Mice experiments published demonstrating that blocking the CTLA-4 molecule on immune cells can cure cancerLeach, Krummel, Allison | University of California Berkeley |
Snell was a major founder of immunogenetics as a discipline. He is best known for helping to identify the major histocompatibility complex, a group of genes that code for proteins found on the surface of cells that help the immune system differentiate between self and nonself cells, and demonstrating its role in tissue graft rejection. This work laid the foundation for carrying out successful transplants in both animals and humans. Snell shared the 1980 Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'discoveries concerning genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions'.1996-06-06T00:00:00+0000| 6 Jun 1996 | | George D Snell diedSnell | Jackson Laboratory |
B Bogen, 'Peripheral T cell tolerance as a tumor escape mechanism', European Journal Immunology, 26 (1996), 2671-79.1996-11-01T00:00:00+0000| November 1996 | | Experiments demostrate antigen-specific CD4+ and T cells become tolerant during tumour growth in test tubes | |
Koshland was an American immunologist who was a major pioneer in the field of antibodies. Her work was instrumental in showing antibodies to be discrete entities and knowledge about the origins of antibody specificity. In the 1960s, she demonstrated that the efficiency and effectiveness with which antibodies can combat foreign invaders is determined by their different amino acid compositions. By the 1990s she had unravelled the process that accompanies and directs B cell activation and maturation. A major role-model for other women scientists, Koshland was nearly not awarded her PhD because her professor thought it would be a waste because she was pregnant. 1997-10-28T00:00:00+0000| 28 Oct 1997 | | Marian E Koshland diedKoshland | Brookhaven National Laboratory |
Launched by the biotechnology company Medarex in collaboration with Jim Allison. 2000-01-01T00:00:00+0000| 2000 | | First clinical trials launched to test first immune checkpoint inhibitor drug containing a monoclonal antibody against CTLA-4 (ipilimumab, Yervoy®)Allison | Medarex, University of California Berkley |
Research conducted by a team lead by Martha Jordan and published in Nature Immunology2001-03-28T00:00:00+0000| March 2001 | | Mechanism uncovered for the way the immune system generates regulatory T-cellsJordan | Wistar Institute |
Milstein was an Argentinian biochemist. Together with Georges Kohler, Milstein developed the first unlimited supply of long-lasting monoclonal antibodies. Their technique now underpins the development and application of many diagnostics and therapeutics. Kohler and Milstein devised the method as part of their search for a tool to investigate how the immune system can make so many different kinds antibodies, each able to bind to a highly specific receptor on foreign substances that invade the body. 2002-03-24T00:00:00+0000| March 2002 | | Cesar Milstein diedMilstein | Laboratory of Molecular Biology |
Research led by Rajasekharan Somasundaram and Dorothee Herlyn published in Cancer Research.2002-09-14T00:00:00+0000| 14 Sep 2002 | | Regulatory T cells discovered to restrain cytolytic T cells attacking cancer via messanger chemical called TGF-betaHerlyn, Somasundaram | Wistar Institute |
JD Fontenot, MA Gavin, AY Rudensky, 'Foxp3 programs the development and function of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells', Nature Immunology, 4 (2003), 330-36.2003-03-03T00:00:00+0000| 2003 | | Genetic switch identified that controls the development of T cells, an important immune cell that controls against autoimmunity and excess inflammationFontenot, Gavin, Rudensky | Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Washington |
Good was an American physician and scientific researcher whose work on the cellular mechanisms of immunity earned him the reputation as one of the founders of modern immunology. In 1962 he helped demonstrate the two-component system of immunity. The first consisted of T cells, produced by the thymus gland, which he showed were important players in cell-mediated immunity. The second were the B cells, produced by the bone marrow, which he identified as responsible for producing antibodies. Three years later he demonstrated the important role tonsils play in the immune system. In addition to these landmark discoveries, he worked out, through experiments on mice, the crucial role of T cells in the rejection of skin allografts. He used this finding to perform the first successful bone marrow transplant between persons who were not identical twins.2003-06-13T00:00:00+0000| 13 Jun 2003 | | Robert A Good diedGood | University of Minnesota |
Chase was an American immunologist who in the early 1940s discovered that white blood cells trigger the immune response in the body confronting a foreign invader. His finding laid to rest the belief that antibodies by themselves could protect the body from allergies and pathogens. Chase also uncovered the second arm of the immune system, known as cell-mediated immunity, paving the way to the discovery of lymphocyte cells and B and T cells.2004-01-05T00:00:00+0000| 5 Jan 2004 | | Merrill W Chase diedChase | Rockefeller University |
Dausset was a French immunologist. In 1952 he noticed that white blood cells taken from patients who had received blood transfusions agglutinated when mixed with antibodies. He realised this was due to the genetic differences between donors and recipients. Eight years later he discovered the first leukocyte antigen, an important marker found on the surface of cells that helps the immune system recognise foreign substances. He subsequently worked out the complex relationship between tissue compatibility and graft survival. In 1980 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work on tissue typing which is essential to the success of transplants. 2009-06-06T00:00:00+0000| 6 Jun 2009 | | Jean Dausset diedDausset | University of Paris |
Klinman was an American immunologist who developed the splenic focus assay, a tool that allowed analysis of antibody production derived from single clones of B cells. He used the tool to analyse immune tolerance and immune responses to influenza. In addition he invented the splenic fragment system, a technique that helped generate some of earliest monoclonal antibodies against viral antigens and cancer.2010-05-04T00:00:00+0000| 4 May 2010 | | Norman Klinman died in San Diego, California, USAKlinman | Wistar Institute, University of Pennsylvania |
Benacerraf was an immunologist who, based on experiments with guinea pigs in the 1960s, provided the pathway to understand how T lymphocytes recognise structures on the cell surface of foreign substances that invade the body. He showed that immune responses are controlled by genes that exist in a certain area on a certain chromosome. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1980 for his discoveries of genes that regulate immune responses and the role some of these genes play in autoimmune disorders. Born in Venezuaela and brought up in Paris, Bernaceraf and his parents were forced to move to United States in 1940 because of their Jewish heritage. 2011-08-02T00:00:00+0000| 2 Aug 2011 | | Baruj Benacerraf diedBenacerraf | Harvard Medical School |
Thomas was a physician who was a major pioneer of cell and organ transplantation. He is best known for his development of bone marrow transplants, which became a life-saving treatment for blood cancers. Donnall developed the technique on the back of research carried out in the Manhattan Project which showed that 'factors' released by spleen cells stimulated the recovery of irradiated bone marrow. In 1990 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine on the basis of this research.2012-10-20T00:00:00+0000| 20 Oct 2012 | | E Donnall Thomas diedThomas | Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center |
Murray was an American plastic surgeon. He performed the first successful kidney transplant between identical twins in 1954. The operation lasted five and half hours and involved the transplantation of a healthy kidney from Robert Herrick into his twin brother, Richard, who was dying of chronic nephritis. Four years later Murray performed the first successful transplant from a non-identical donor and in 1962 the first cadaveric renal transplant. In 1990 Murray shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'discoveries concerning organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease.' 2012-11-26T00:00:00+0000| 26 Nov 2012 | | Joseph Murray diedJoseph Murray | Brigham and Women's Hospital |
Askonas was a leading figure in immunology whose work helped to establish the basic mechanisms and components of immune system. Together with colleagues she developed one of the first systems for the cloning of antibody-forming B cells in vivo, some of the earliest monoclonal antibodies. She was also one of the first scientists to isolate and clone virus specific T lymphocytes, laying the foundation for defining different influenza sub-sets and improving vaccines. 2013-01-09T00:00:00+0000| 9 Jan 2013 | | Brigitte Askonas diedAskonas | National Institute for Medical Research |
Marketed as Lemtrada, the drug was the first ever ever humanised monoclonal antibody produced. It started life as a laboratory tool for investigating immune tolerance and was subsequently approved for the treatment of leukaemia. The drug has also proven useful for treating a number of other auto-immune conditions including vasculitis. 2014-04-04T00:00:00+0000| 4 Apr 2014 | | British NICE recommends alemtuzumab as cost effective multiple sclerosis treatmentCompston, Coles, Waldmann, Winter | Cambridge University, Sanofi |
Edelman was an American biologist renowned for his research on antibodies, the body's defense against harmful foreign substances like viruses and bacteria. His research helped determine the chemical structure of antibodies in the early 1960s. It showed that antibodies were made up of two light and heavy chains linked together by disulfide bonds. The breakthrough immediately galvanised feverish activity in all fields of immunological science, paving the way to the development of antibodies for both diagnostics and therapy. Edelman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1972 for his work. 2014-05-17T00:00:00+0000| 17 May 2014 | | Gerald M Edelman diedEdelman | Rockefeller University |
Based on the analysis of data from hundreds of patients, scientists found markers on tumour cells flagging up very early mutations of the disease. The advantage is these appear on all tumour cells, thereby providing a good target for treatment. N. McGranahan, et al, 'Clonal neoantigens elicit T cell immunoreactivity and sensitivity to immune checkpoint blockade', Science, 351/6280 (2016), 1463-69. 2016-03-25T00:00:00+0000| 25 Mar 2016 | | Common tags discovered on the surface of cancer cells opening up new avenues for immunotherapyMcGranahan, Furness, Rosenthal, Ramskov, Lyngaa, Saini, Jamal-Hanjani, Wilson, Birkbak, Hiley, Watkins, Shafi, Murugaesu, Mitter, Akarca, Linares, Marafioti, Henry, Van Allen, Miao, Schilling, Schadendorf, Garraway, Makarov, Rizvi,m Snyder, Hellman, Mergh | University College London, Cancer Research UK, Francis Crick Insitute, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Broad Institute, University Duisburg-Essen, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, Columbia Univertsity, Weill Cornell Medical College, Harvard Medical S |
UK scientists show how the TALENs gene editing tool can be used to switch on the immune system to stop cancer. L. Menger, et al, 'TALEN-Mediated Inactivation of PD-1 in Tumor-Reactive Lymphocytes Promotes Intratumoral T-cell Persistence and Rejection of Established Tumors', Cancer Research, 2016, doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-3352. 2016-04-15T00:00:00+0000| 15 Apr 2016 | | Gene editing used to prompt immune cells to combat cancerQuezada, Johnson, Menger, Sledzinska, Bergerhoff, Vargas, Smith, Poirot, Pule, Hererro, Peggs | University College London, Cancer Research UK, Cellectis |
Research carried out by a team led by Dimitry I Gabriolvich. 2016-08-05T00:00:00+0000| August 2016 | | Marker identified for myeloid-derived suppressor cells, a type of cell associated with tumour resistance to certain cancer treatments | Wistar Institute |
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