DNA

Definition

DNA is a complex, long-chained molecule that contains the genetic blueprint for building and maintaining all living organisms. Found in nearly all cells, DNA carries the instructions needed to create proteins, specific molecules essential to the development and functioning of the body. It also transfers hereditary information between generations.

This vial contains some of the first DNA Friedrich Miescher isolated from salmon sperm. It is in the possession of the University of Turbingen, Germany. Credit: Alfons Renz.

Importance

DNA is central to biotechnology and medicine by virtue of the fact that it not only provides the basic blueprint for all life, it is a fundamental determinant of how the body functions and the disease process. Understanding the structure and function of DNA has helped revolutionise the investigation of disease pathways, assess an individual’s genetic susceptibility to specific diseases, diagnose genetic disorders, and formulate new drugs. It is also critical to the identification of pathogens.

Aside from its medical uses, the fact that DNA is unique to each individual makes it a vital forensic tool identifying criminals, the remains of a missing person, and determining the biological parent of a child. Within agriculture DNA is also used to help improve animal livestock and plants.

Discovery

The discovery of DNA stretches back to 1869, when Friedrich Miescher, a Swiss physician and biologist, began examining leucocytes, a type of white blood cell, he had sourced from pus collected on fresh surgical bandages. This he did while working in the laboratory of Felix Hoppe-Seyler in Tubingen, Germany as part of project to determine the chemical building blocks of cells. On looking through the microscope he observed that a substance separated from the solution of the cells whenever he added an acid and then dissolved again once alkali was added. The compound bore no resemblance to any known protein. Believing the substance to originate from the nuceli of the cell, Miescher nicknamed it 'nuclein'. On investigating further he discovered nuclein to be present in many other tissues. While possessing only simple tools and methods, by 1874 Miescher had come close to working out the genetic role of nuclein. He lacked sufficient communication skills, however, to convey the importance of what he had found to the wider scientific world.

In 1881 Albrecht Kossel, a German biochemist, renamed Miescher's compound deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) based on the fact that he had discovered it to be a nucleic acid. Following this, he began working out its chemical composition. By 1901 he determined it to be made up of five nitrogen bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U).

For many decades DNA remained little studied because it was assumed to be an inert substance incapable of carrying genetic material because of its simple structure. Proteins were instead thought to be the carriers of genetic material. In part this was because they had a more complex structure, being made up of 20 different amino acids.

It would not be until the mid 20th century that attitudes towards DNA began to change. This was prompted by the work of Oswald Avery at Rockefeller Institute in New York. From the early 1930s, Avery began to investigate how a type of non-infectious bacteria associated with pneumonia could transform into dangerous virulent forms if mixed with dead cells from the virulent strain and carried this trait into their offspring. The phenomenon had been first observed by Fred Griffith, a British physician, in 1928. By 1944 Avery had demonstrated with the help of his colleagues Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, that the transformation of the bacteria was linked to a stringy white substance – DNA. While not universally accepted at the time, Avery's finding helped kindle a new interest in DNA. It would take another few years before scientists finally accepted that it was DNA, not proteins, that carried DNA. It was finally agreed following experiments conducted by Alfred Hershey and Martha Hershey at Cold Spring Harbor in 1952.

By the 1950s a number of researchers had begun to investigate the structure of DNA in the hope that this would reveal how the molecule worked. Its structure was finally unveiled in 1953 through the combined efforts of the biophysicists Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, based at King's College London, and Francis Crick and James Watson based in the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge University. Their work determined DNA to be a long linear molecule made up of two strands coiled around each other in a spiral configuration later known as the 'double helix'. Each strand was made up of four complementary nucleotides, chemical subunits: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). The two strands were oriented in opposite directions so that adenine always joined thymines (A T) and cytosines were linked with guanines (C G). Watson and Crick argued this structure helped each strand to reconstruct the other and facilitate the passing on of hereditary information.

Application

The analysis of DNA is pivotal to understanding both the biological mechanisms of life and diseases that arise when this process goes wrong. Many different applications have been developed to understand this process. Today scientists can analyse the molecule through a range of techniques, including DNA sequencing which helps work out its structure, through to PCR, which rapidly amplifies tiny quantities of DNA into billions of copies. Such techniques underpin all tests carried out today to for example identify a genetic mutation that causes cancer, or to determine whether a person carries a gene for a hereditary disease that can be passed on to their offspring. In addition, scientists have found ways to manipulate and construct new forms of DNA, known as recombinant DNA or gene cloning. Such technology is crucial to the mass production of many drugs, such as interferon, and the development of gene therapy.

DNA: timeline of key events

von Nageli identified string-like bodies in cell nucleus. He did not know they played role in heredity. 1842-01-01T00:00:00+0000Miescher was the first person to isolate nucleic acids from the nuclei of white blood cells. This he did in 1869. The significance of his work, first published in 1871, was initially missed by the scientific community. Miescher later suggested that nucleic acids could carry the genetic blueprint for life. In addition to his work on nucleic acids, Miescher demonstrated carbon dioxide concentrations in blood regulate breathing. Twitter1844-08-13T00:00:00+0000van Beneden was a cytologist and embryologist. He worked out how chromosomes divide during cell meiosis. Based on studies of an intestinal worm found in horses, he also showed that fertilisation involves the union of two half-nuclei, one form the male sperm cell and one from the female egg, each containing half the the number of chromosomes found in all cells. He later demonstrated that the chromosome number is constant for every body cell in each species. 1846-03-05T00:00:00+0000Oscar Hertwig, Albrecht von Kolliker, Eduard Strasburger, and August Weismann independently show the cell's nucleus contains the basis for inheritance.1864-01-01T00:00:00+0000Freidrich Miescher, Swiss physician and biologist, performing experiments on the chemical composition of white blood cells (leucocytes) isolates phosphate-rich chemicals from the nuclei of cells. Originally calling this substance nuclein, Miescher's discovery paved the way for the identification of what we today call nucleic acids and the understanding of DNA as the carrier of inheritance. 1869-01-01T00:00:00+0000A Russian-American biochemist, Levene discovered nucleic acids came in two forms: DNA and RNA. He also idenified the components of DNA: adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine, deoxyribose and a phosphate group and showed that these components were linked together by nucleotides, phosphate-sugar base units. Born to Jewish parents, Levene emigrated to the US in 1893 as a result of anti-semitic pogroms. He was appointed the head of the biochemical laboratory at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in 1905 where he spent the rest of his career. 1869-02-25T00:00:00+0000Albrecht Kossel, German biochemist, shows that the substance called nuclein consists of a protein and non-protein component.1877-01-01T00:00:00+0000Avery was a physician and bacteriologist who provided the first evidence that that genes are made up of DNA. In 1944 he and colleagues conducted a series of experiments in mice using two sets of bacteria, one smooth (virulent) and the other rough (nonvirulent), associated with pneumonia. In the first instance they injected the virulent bacteria into the mouse, which went on to die. Next they injected the non-virulent bacteria into a mouse, which survived. They then heated the virulent bacteria to kill it and injected it into a mouse, which survived. Following this they injected a mixture of heat-killed bacteria with the virulent bacteria into the mouse, which died. Finally they injected a mixture of harmless bacteria with DNA extracted from the heated lethal bacteria in a mouse which died. The experiment showed that the harmless bacteria became lethal when mixed with DNA from the virulent bacteria. 1877-10-21T00:00:00+0000Originally called chromatin, the chromosome is a rod like structure that is found inside the cell nucleus. It was discovered by Walther Flemming with the help of analine dyes. He also described the behaviour of chromosomes during cell division. Flemming first published a comprehensive outline of is findings in his book Zellsubstanz, Kern und Zelltheilung (Cell substance, nucleus and cell division) in 1882. 1878-01-01T00:00:00+0000Originally called chromatin, the chromosome is a rod like structure that is found inside the cell nucleus. It was discovered by Walther Flemming with the help of analine dyes. 1878-01-01T00:00:00+0000Albrecht Kossel isolates and describes five organic compounds present in nucleic acids as being adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, and uracil. 1885-01-01T00:00:00+0000Richard Altmann, German pathologist, renames nuclein as nucleic acid.1889-01-01T00:00:00+0000A Swiss physician and biochemist. Miescher, was the first person to isolate nucleic acids from the nuclei of white blood cells. This he did in 1869. The significance of his work, first published in 1871, was initially missed by the scientific community. Miescher later suggested that nucleic acids could carry the genetic blueprint for life. In addition to his work on nucleic acids, Miescher demonstrated that carbon dioxide concentrations in blood regulate breathing. 1895-08-26T00:00:00+0000William G Ruppel discovered the nucleotide while trying to isolate the bacterial toxin responsible for tuberculosis. 1898-01-01T00:00:00+0000Pauling was a chemist and biochemist who helped to pioneer quantum chemistry and mechanics. He combined methods from x-ray crystallography, molecular model building and quantum chemistry. Pauling was the first to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. In 1954 he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his 'research on the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex structures.' He also co-authored the first paper to suggest sickle-cell anaemia was a genetic disease, which introduced the concept of 'molecular disease'. Pauling also won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962, which was awarded to him for his opposition to nuclear weapons.1901-02-28T00:00:00+0000Theodor Boveri, German biologist, and Walter Sutton, American geneticist and physician, independently develop the theory that chromosomes carry genetic material.1902-01-01T00:00:00+0000Wilhelm Johannsen, a Danish botanist and geneticist, introduces the terms phenotype to denote the observable traits of an organism, and genotype to denote the inherited instructions an organism carries within its cells. The terms are published in his paper Om arvelighed i samfund og i rene linie. This lays the foundation for the study of genetics. 1903-01-01T00:00:00+0000Ochoa was a biochemist and molecular biologist whose research was devoted to understanding enzymes and their role in intermediary metabolism. He was one of the first scientists to show the pivotal role of high energy phosphates, like adenosine triphosphate, in the storage and release of energy. During this work he discovered the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which plays an important role in the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA). This enzyme provided the foundation for the subsequent synthesis of artificial RNA and the breaking of the human genetic code. Ochoa was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1959 for his work on the biological synthesis of RNA.1905-09-24T00:00:00+0000Todd was a Scottish biochemist who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1957 for helping to elucidate the structure and synthesis of many of the building blocks of DNA and RNA: nucleotides, nucleosides and their co-enzymes. He also synthesised two important biochemical compounds: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). 1907-10-02T00:00:00+0000Wilhelm Johannsen uses the word gene for the first time to describe units of heredity in his book Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre. The book becomes the founding text of genetics. 1909-01-01T00:00:00+0000Phoebus Levene, a Russian-American biochemist, describes the building blocks of DNA, including four types of bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T) .1910-01-01T00:00:00+0000van Beneden was a Belgian cytologist and embryologist. He worked out how chromosomes divide during cell meiosis. Based on studies of an intestinal worm found in horses, he also showed that fertilisation involves the union of two half-nuclei, one form the male sperm cell and one from the female egg, each containing half the the number of chromosomes found in all cells. He later demonstrated that the chromosome number is constant for every body cell in each species. 1910-04-28T00:00:00+0000Zamecnik pioneered the in vitro synthesis of proteins and helped determine the way cells generate proteins. Together with Mahlon Hoagland and Mary Stephenson he showed that protein synthesis was activated by adenosine 5'-triphosphate and that ribosomes were the site of protein assembly. He also subsequently helped to discover transfer RNA and is credited with laying the foundation for the development of antisense therapies, a type of gene therapy. 1912-11-22T00:00:00+0000Alfred Sturtevant, an American geneticist, experimenting with Drosophila flies, determines that genes are arranged on chromosomes in a linear fashion, like beads on a necklace. 1913-01-01T00:00:00+0000Speigelman was a molecular biologist who investigated how cells form enzymes, DNA and RNA structures. He is credited with improving the nucleic acid hybridisation technique. This technique makes it possible to detect specific DNA and RNA strands in cells. It is now used for analysing the organisation of the genome, studying gene expression and for developing recombinant DNA. 1914-12-14T00:00:00+0000Crick is best known for the work he did with James Watson that identified the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1962. He also developed the central dogma of molecular biology which explained how genetic information flowed within a biological system, moving from DNA to RNA and then protein. His subsequent work looked at the way in which the brain works and the nature of consciousness. 1916-06-08T00:00:00+0000Wilkins was a biophysicist whose development of x-ray diffraction techniques helped determine the structure of DNA. He obtained the first x-ray patterns on DNA in 1950. This work led to his winning the Nobel Prize in 1962. Following his work on DNA, Wilkins directed his attention to studying the structure of various forms of RNA and a wide group of genetic problems, like ageing. In his younger years, Wilkins was recruited to work on the Manhattan atomic bomb project during the war. Wilkins became profoundly disillusioned with nuclear weapons after the bombing of Japan and was the president of the British Society for Social Responsibility in Science from 1969 to 1991. 1916-12-15T00:00:00+0000Kornberg was a biochemist renowned for his research on enzymes which create DNA. In 1956 he and his team isolated the first enzyme known to be involved in the replication of DNA. It would be called DNA polymerase I. For this work Kornberg shared the 1959 Nobel Prize for Medicine. The Prize was given for the discovery of the 'mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid.'1918-03-03T00:00:00+0000The first to determine the DNA sequence of insulin, Sanger proved proteins have a defined chemical composition. He was also pivotal to the development of the dideoxy chain-termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, known as the Sanger method. This provided a breakthrough in the sequencing of long stretches of DNA in terms of speed and accuracy and laid the foundation for the Human Genome Project. 1918-08-13T00:00:00+0000Franklin was a biophysicist. She is best known for having taken photo 51, in 1952, which provided the first evidence of the double helix structure of DNA. She took the photo using x-ray crystallography. Data from the photo was pivotal to Crick and Watson's building of their DNA double helical structure of DNA FOR which they won the Nobel Prize in 1962. Sadly Franklin died too early to receive the Nobel Prize for her work.1920-07-25T00:00:00+0000Witkin is best known for her work on DNA mutagenesis and DNA repair. She helped elucidate the first co-ordinated stress response. This she did by studying the response of bacteria to UV radiation. Witkins was one of the first few women to be elected to the US National Academy of Sciences, in 1977. She was also awarded the National Medal of Science in 2002. 1921-03-09T00:00:00+0000The son of Jewish Polish immigrants, Benzer was a molecular biologist who proved that genetic mutations were caused by changes in the DNA sequence. This was based on some experiments he pursued with mutant T4 bacteriophages, known as r mutants. In 1952 he spotted abnormal behaviour in one mutant strain and a year later devised a technique to measure the recombination frequency between different r mutant strains to map the substructure of a single gene. His work laid the path to determining the detailed structure of viral genes. Benzer also coined the term cistron to denote functional subunits of genes. Together with Ronald Konopka, his student, Benzer also discovered the first gene to control an organism's sense of time, in 1971. 1921-10-15T00:00:00+0000Khorana was a chemist who shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Medicine for the elucidation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis. He helped demonstrate that the chemical composition and function of a new cell is determined by four nucleotides in DNA and that the nucleotide code is transmitted in groups of three, called codons, and these codons instruct the cell to start and stop the production of proteins. His work also laid the foundation for the development of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique that makes it possible to make billions of copies of small fragments of DNA. 1922-01-09T00:00:00+0000A molecular biologist, Smith was a key pioneer in nucleic acid research. One of the few to realise the importance of nucleic acids before Watson and Crick uncovered the structure of DNA in 1953, Smith helped to elucidate the structure of ribonucleic acid molecules (RNA), the genetic material of many plant and animal viruses. This was helped by his development of paper chromatographic methods for analysing nucleosides and other units which make up DNA. He also helped to discover rare and unexpected modifications of DNA bases in bacterial genomes which are now understood to prevent attack from DNA viruses. 1924-12-08T00:00:00+0000Lederberg was an American geneticist who helped discover the mechanism of genetic recombination in bacteria. This was based on some experiments he performed with Edward Tatum in 1946 which involved mixing two different strains of bacteria. Their experiments also demonstrated for the first time that bacteria reproduced sexually, rather than by cells splitting in two, thereby proving that bacterial genetic systems were similar to those of multicellular organisms. Later on, in 1952, working with Norton Zinder, Lederberg found that certain bacteriophages (viruses that affect bacteria) could carry a bacterial gene from one bacterium to another. In 1958 Lederberg shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organisation of the genetic material of bacteria.' 1925-05-23T00:00:00+0000T.B. Johnson, R.D. Coghill, 'The discovery of 5-methyl-cytosine in tuberculinic acid, the nucleic acid of the Tubercle bacillus', Journal of the American Chemical Society, 47/11 (1925, 2838–44. 1925-11-01T00:00:00+0000Berg was an American biochemist. He first made his name in 1971 by demonstrating it was possible to insert DNA from a bacterium into the a virus' DNA, creating what is called recombinant DNA. This he did as part of his work to study viral chromosomes. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1980 for this work. His technique paved the way to the development of genetic engineering and the modern biotechnology industry. Berg was also instrumental in the setting up of the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, in 1975, which drew up the first guidelines for experiments with genetic engineering. 1926-06-30T00:00:00+0000Nirenberg was a biochemist and geneticist who shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Medicine for interpreting the genetic code and its function of protein synthesis. The Prize was given on the back of some experiments Nirenberg conducted in 1960 and 1961 which identified particular codons (3 chemical units of DNA) that specified each of the 20 amino acids that make up protein molecules. 1927-04-10T00:00:00+0000Frederick Griffith, British microbiologist, discovers that a harmless strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae can be made virulent after being exposed to heat-killed virulent strains. On the basis of this he hypothesises that some transforming principle from the heat-killed strain is responsible for making the harmless strain virulent. 1928-01-01T00:00:00+0000Watson is a molecular biologist and geneticist who helped to determine the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953, for which he shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for Medicine. Watson also helped set up the Human Genome Project, which he headed up between 1990 to 1992. He left the project after campaigning against the NIH patenting the human genome. In 2007 he became the second person to publish his fully sequenced genome online. This he did to encourage the development of personalised medicine. 1928-04-06T00:00:00+0000Ray Wu pioneered the first primer-extension method for DNA sequencing which laid the foundation for the Human Genome Project. He was also instrumental in the application of genetic engineering to agricultural plants to improve their output and resistance to pests, salt and drought. 1928-08-14T00:00:00+0000Nathans was the first scientist to demonstrate how restriction enzymes could be used to cleave DNA and how to piece together its fragments to construct a complete map of DNA. His work inspired the use of restriction enzymes for many different biotechnology applications, including DNA sequencing and the construction of recombinant DNA. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1978 for his work on restriction enzymes. 1928-10-30T00:00:00+0000Werner Arber is a geneticist and microbiologist. He shared the 1978 Nobel Prize in 1978 for helping to discover restriction enzymes and showing their application in molecular genetics. It was based on some work he carried out in the 1960s. Arber indicated in 1965 that restriction enzymes could be used as a tool for cleaving DNA. The enzymes are now an important tool for genetic engineering. 1929-06-03T00:00:00+0000Stahl is a molecular biologist and geneticist who helped to elucidate how DNA is replicated. Together with Matthew Medelsohn, Stahl showed that the double-stranded helix molecule of DNA separates into two strands and that each of these strands serve as a template for the production of a new strand of DNA. They did this in 1958. Following this work, Stahl did extensive work on bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, and their genetic recombination. In 1964 he established that DNA in T4 bacteriophages is circular rather than linear. Eight years later he and his wife, Mary, found a DNA sequence in the lambda bacteriophage necessary to initiate genetic recombination. This laid the foundation for genetic engineering. 1929-10-08T00:00:00+0000Griffin was a leading expert on viruses that cause cancer. She was the first woman appointed to Royal Postgraduate Medical School, Hammersmith Hospital. In 1980 she completed the sequence of the poliovirus, the longest piece of eukaryotic DNA to be sequenced at that time. She devoted her life to understanding the Epstein-Barr virus, the cause of Burkitt's Lymphoma, a deadly form of cancer. The virus is also now thought to cause multiple sclerosis. 1930-01-23T00:00:00+0000This was based on their experiments with the variegated colour pattern of maize kernels which showed that some genetic elements on the chromosome are capable of movement. They published their results in 'A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing-Over in Zea Mays',PNAS, 7/8 (1931), 492-97. 1931-08-01T00:00:00+0000Hamilton O Smith is an American microbiologist who helped isolate and characterised the first restriction enzyme from the bacteria Haemophilus influenzae. This he achieved with Kent Wilcox in 1970. They showed that the enzyme degrades foreign phage DNA but not the host's DNA. Now known as HindIII, the restriction enzyme went on to become a major tool for cutting and pasting of specific DNA fragments for the generation of recombinant DNA. Smith was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1978 for his part in the discovery of the enzyme. In 1995 he and a team at the Institute for Genomic Research completed the DNA sequence of Haemophilus influenzae. It was the first bacterial genome to be deciphered. Later on he helped in the genomic sequencing efforts for the fruit fly and humans at Celera Genomics. 1931-08-23T00:00:00+00001932-01-01T00:00:00+0000Gilbert is a molecular biologist. He was involved in some of the early efforts to pioneer techniques for determining base sequences in nucleic acids, known known as DNA sequencing, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1980. He was the first scientist to propose the existence of intron and exons. In 1986 Gilbert became a proponent of the theory that the first forms of life evolved out of replicating RNA molecules. The same year he began campaigning to set up the Human Genome Project. He was also a co-founder and the first Chief Executive Officer of Biogen, a biotechnology company originally set up to commercialise genetic engineering.1932-03-21T00:00:00+0000Cohen is an American physician and geneticist whose research has focused on the biology of bacterial plasmids, independent circular units of DNA found in and sometimes exchanged by bacteria. In 1970 he found a way to make Escherichia coli acquire a plasmid that made it resistant to the antibiotic tetracycline. He also discovered with Herbert Boyer a restriction enzyme that could cleave a circular plasmid at a single site. This laid the foundation for their joint experiment in 1973 which demonstrated the feasibility of combining and replicating genetic information from different species. Their experiment involved inserted a gene for frog ribosomal RNA into bacterial cells which then expressed the gene. Three patents were taken out on their technique. These paved the way to the rise of new start-up biotechnology companies, founded on the back of the promise of genetic engineering for generating new therapeutic products. 1935-06-30T00:00:00+0000Studies a combination of chemistry, physics, maths and physiology and specialises in biochemistry in his final year.1936-01-01T00:00:00+0000Together with Stanley Cohen, Boyer demonstrated the possibility of producing recombinant DNA in bacteria in 1973. This they did by combining a gene for frog ribosomal RNA with a bacterial plasmid which was then put into a strain of E-coli for expression. Based on this technique Boyer helped found Genentech, the first biotechnology company dedicated to commercialising recombinant DNA. This he did in 1976 in collaboration with Robert Swanson. 1936-07-10T00:00:00+0000Baltimore shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for his work on the interaction between tumor viruses and the genetic material of the cell. He also spearheaded efforts for the scientific governance of recombinant DNA and genome editing technologies. 1938-03-07T00:00:00+0000Initially supervised by Bill Pirie, and then by Albert Neuberger, in the Department of Biochemistry. Thesis: 'On the metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body'. 1940-01-01T00:00:00+0000A Russian-American biochemist, Levene discovered nucleic acids came in two forms: DNA and RNA. He also identified the components of DNA: adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine, deoxyribose and a phosphate group and showed that these components were linked together by nucleotides, phosphate-sugar base units. Born to Lithuanian Jewish parents, Levene emigrated to the US in 1893 as a result of anti-semitic pogroms. He was appointed the head of the biochemical laboratory at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in 1905 where he spent the rest of his career. 1940-09-06T00:00:00+0000Term first used by A. Jost, a Danish microbiologist, in lecture on sexual reproduction in yeast presented to the Technical Institute in Lwow, Poland 1941-01-01T00:00:00+0000Sulston was a biologist who played a central role in sequencing the genome of the Caenorhabditis elegans, a transparent nematode (roundworm). It was the first animal to have its genome sequenced. Based on his work with the nematode, Sulston helped set up the project to sequence the human genome which he did as director of the Sanger Centre. The first draft of the human genome sequence was completed in 2000. In 2002 he shared the Nobel Prize for identifying how genes regulate the life cycle of cells through apoptosis. 1942-03-27T00:00:00+0000Shrodinger, an Austrian physicist, made the suggestion in a lecture entitled 'What is Life?' at Trinity College, Dublin. His talk inspired James Watson and Francis Crick to uncover the molecular structure of DNA which they did in 1953. They drew on the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins to build their double-helix model of DNA1943-02-26T00:00:00+0000Avery made the point in a letter to his brother Roy Avery. 1943-05-15T00:00:00+0000A molecular biologist, Roberts helped discover that certain sections of DNA (introns) do not carry genetic information and the mechanism of gene splicing. He made the discovery with colleagues in 1977 while working on the genes of the adnovirus, one of viruses of the common cold. Roberts shared the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1993 for this work. His research had a major impact on the understanding of genetics and led to the discovery of split genes in higher organisms, including humans. It also helped advance knowledge about the development of cancer and human genetic disorders.1943-09-06T00:00:00+0000Sanger undertakes the research as part of team working with Albert Chibnall in Department of Biochemistry. His work is initially supported by a Beit Memorial Fellowship from 1944 and then by Medical Research Council from 1951. 1944-01-01T00:00:00+0000Witkin discovered the radiation resistance after exposing E coli stain B bacteria to high doses of UV light. She subsequently worked out that the resistance was due to a particular genetic mutation in the bacteria strain which inhibited cell division. Witkin did the work under the guidance of Milislav Demerec at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. She published her findings in EM Witkin, 'A case of inherited resistance to radiation in bacteria', Genetics, 31 (1946) 236; EM Witkin, 'Inherited Differences in Sensitivity to Radiation in Escherichia Coli', PNAS USA, 32/3 (1946), 59–68. Witkin's work laid the foundation for showing that cell division is inhibited when DNA is damaged and was the first demonstration of a cell checkpoint. 1944-01-01T00:00:00+0000The physician-geneticists Oswald Avery, Canadian-born, Colin MacLeod, Canadian-born, and Maclyn McCarty, American-born, published an experiment demonstrating that a harmless bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae, can be made virulent by using DNA isolated from a virulent strain. The experiment involved injecting into mice two sets of bacteria, one smooth (virulent) and the other rough (nonvirulent), associated with pneumonia. In the first instance the collaborators injected the virulent bacteria into the mouse, which went on to die. Next they injected the non-virulent bacteria into a mouse, which survived. They then heated the virulent bacteria to kill it and injected it into a mouse, which survived. Following this they injected a mixture of heat-killed bacteria with the virulent bacteria into the mouse, which died. Finally they injected a mixture of harmless bacteria with DNA extracted from the heated lethal bacteria in a mouse which died. The experiment showed that the harmless bacteria became lethal when mixed with DNA from the virulent bacteria. The experiment was published in 'Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing the transformation of pneumococcal types', Journal of Experimental Medicine, 79/2 (1944), 137-58. 1944-02-01T00:00:00+0000Venter is a biochemist and geneticist who was involved in the setting up of Celera Genomics, The Institute for Genomic Research and J Craig Institute which helped sequence the first human genome. In 2010 Venter worked with a team to create the first form of synthetic life. This involved synthesising a long molecule of DNA that contained an entire bacerum genome and then inserting this into another cell. 1946-10-14T00:00:00+0000Together with Herbert Boyer, Swanson helped found Genentech, the first biotechnology company dedicated to commercialising recombinant DNA. From 1976 to 1990 Swanson was Chief Executive and Director of the company and played an instrumental role in leading it to become the first major biotechnology company to show a profit and go public. 1947-11-29T00:00:00+0000Roger Vendrely, Colette Vendrely and Andre Boivin, French scientists, report that the DNA content of cells is directly related to the chromosomes they contain. Importantly they discover half as much DNA in the nuclei of sex cells as they find in body cells. This provides further evidence for the fact that DNA is genetic material. 1949-01-01T00:00:00+0000Erwin Chargaff, Austro-Hungarian-born American biochemist, shows that the DNA base composition varies between species and that within a species the four DNA bases are always present in fixed ratios: the same number of A’s as T’s and the same number of C’s as G’s. This boosts the belief that DNA is genetic material and provides the foundation for the discovery of the double helix structure. 1949-01-01T00:00:00+0000The American scientists Linus Pauling, Harvey Itano, Seymour Singer and Ibert Wells published an article in Science showing sickle cell anaemia to be a molecular disease caused by a mutation. Sickle cell anaemia was the first disease to be understood at a molecular level. 1949-09-01T00:00:00+0000The lambda phage has become a key tool in molecular biology and is important for genetic engineering. It has the advantage that it can be easily grown in E Coli and is not pathogenic except in the case of bacteria. Lederberg's discovery paved the way to understanding the transfer of genetic material between bacteria, the mechanisms involved in gene regulation and how piece of DNA break apart and recombine to make new genes. EM Lederberg, 'Lysogenicity in Escherichia coli strain K-12', Microbial Genetics Bulletin, 1, (1950), 5-9. 1950-01-01T00:00:00+0000Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-born English physicist and molecular biologist, using X-ray analyses indicate DNA has a regularly repeating helical structure. This information together with research then being conducted by Rosalind Franklin inspires James Watson and Francis Crick to start building a molecular model of DNA.1951-11-01T00:00:00+0000Noted by Salvador Luria and his graduate student Mary Human while conducting experiments into the break-up of DNA in phage-infected bateria.1952-01-01T00:00:00+0000The finding was made by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, American geneticists, while experimenting with the T2 bacteriophage, a virus that infects bacteria. They demonstrated that when bacteriophages, which are composed of DNA and protein, infect bacteria, their DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most of their protein does not. Their work confirmed that DNA is the genetic material which refuted the long-held assumption that proteins carried the information for inheritance.1952-09-28T00:00:00+0000Nature published Crick and Watson's letter on Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for DNA in which they described a double helix structure.1953-04-02T00:00:00+0000One paper, published by Rosalind Franklin with her PhD student Ray Gosling, included an image produced with x-ray crystallography, which showed DNA to have regularly repeating helical structure. Known as photograph 51, this image had been previously been shown by Maurice Wilkins, without Franklin's permission, to James Watson, who, together with Francis Crick, used it to develop their double-helix model of DNA which was also published in Nature. Calculations from the photograph provided crucial parameters for the size of the helix and its structure, all of which were critical for Watson and Crick's molecular modelling work. Crick and Watson depicted DNA as having a double helix in which A always pairs with T, and C always with G. Their final model represented a correction of an earlier model in the light of comments made by Franklin that the hydrophilic backbones should not go at the centre of the molecule, as Watson and Crick had originally assumed, but go on the outside of the molecule where they could interact with water. The three papers were published in Nature, 171 (25 April 1953), 737-41.1953-04-25T00:00:00+0000Pauling was an American chemist and biochemist who helped pioneer quantum chemistry and mechanics. He combined methods from x-ray crystallography, molecular model building and quantum chemistry. Pauling was the first to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. In 1954 he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his 'research on the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex structures.' He also co-authored the first paper to suggest sickle-cell anaemia was a genetic disease, which introduced the concept of 'molecular disease'. Pauling also won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962, which was given for his opposition to nuclear weapons. 1954-10-31T00:00:00+0000Sanger's insulin results establish for the first time that proteins are chemical entities with a defined sequence. The technique Sanger develops for sequencing insulin later becomes known as the degradation or DNP method. It provides the basis for his later development of sequencing tecdhniques for nucleic acids, including RNA and DNA.1955-01-01T00:00:00+0000Avery was a Canadian-American physician and bacteriologist who provided the first evidence that that genes are made up of DNA. In 1944 he and colleagues conducted a series of experiments in mice using two sets of bacteria, one smooth (virulent) and the other rough (nonvirulent), associated with pneumonia. In the first instance they injected the virulent bacteria into the mouse, which went on to die. Next they injected the non-virulent bacteria into a mouse, which survived. They then heated the virulent bacteria to kill it and injected it into a mouse, which survived. Following this they injected a mixture of heat-killed bacteria with the virulent bacteria into the mouse, which died. Finally they injected a mixture of harmless bacteria with DNA extracted from the heated lethal bacteria in a mouse which died. The experiment showed that the harmless bacteria became lethal when mixed with DNA from the virulent bacteria. 1955-02-02T00:00:00+0000The feat was achieved by Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat with the tobacco mosaic virus. He did this by stripping away the outer layer of one set of viruses with a common household detergent and then removed the cores of another set using another solution. Once this was done he coated leaves of tobacco plants with the virus extracts, making sure to keep them separate. None of the plants got infected. Frankel-Contrat then reformed the viruses by mixing the extracts, which proved sufficient to infect the plants. Fraenkel-Conrat's work settled a long-dispute about how genetic information controlled viral reproduction. He demonstrated that genetic information was carried in a particle of nucleic acid (RNA) at the core of each virus. Fraenkel-Conrat's research laid the foundation for scientists to study how viruses caused diseases like measles, mumps, chickenpox, flu and the common cold. His research was published in H Fraekel-Conrat, R C Williams, 'Reconstrution of active mosaic virus from its inactive protein and nucelic acid components', PNAS, 41/10 (1955), 690-98.1955-10-15T00:00:00+0000The discovery was made by Paul C. Zamecnik with his colleagues Mahlon Hoagland and Mary Stephenson. tRNA is essential to protein synthesis. The molecule helps shuttle amino acids to the ribosome, the cell's protein factory. The work was subsequently published in MB Hoagland, ML Stephenson, JF Scott, ML Stephenson, LI Hecht, PC Zamecnik, 'A soluble ribonucleic acid intermediate in protein synthesis', Journal Biological Chemistry, 231 (1958), 241-57. 1956-01-01T00:00:00+0000The molecule was first observed by the American scientists Elliot Volkin and Lazarus Astrachan in experiments conducted with bacteriophage-infected Escherichia coli. Calling the new molecule 'DNA-like RNA', Volkin and Astrachan published their finding in 'Phosphorus incorporation in Escherichia coli ribonucleic acid after infection with bacteriophage T2', Virology, 2 (1956), 149-61. 1956-01-17T00:00:00+0000The preliminary finding was announced at the annual meeting of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. It was achieved by Arthur Kornberg, an American biochemist, and his colleagues while studying Escherichia coli, a type of bacteria. The discovery that DNA polymerase, an enzyme, could replicate DNA was a major breakthrough because up to this point most scientists believed it was not possible for scientists to duplicate the genetic specificity that is required for DNA replication outside of an intact cell. Kornberg's work opened the way to the discovery of many other similar enzymes and the development of recombinant DNA. The work was published in A Kornberg, I R Lehman, E S Simms, 'Polydesoxyribonucleotide synthesis by enzymes from Escherichia coli', Fed Proc 15 (1956), 291.1956-04-16T00:00:00+0000Ingram shows that the difference between sickle-cell and normal haemoglobulin lies in just one amino acid. 1957-01-01T00:00:00+0000Now known as the 'central dogma' in molecular biology, Crick presented his theory to the Society for Experimental Biology. He proposed that RNA acted as an intermediary between DNA and proteins, helping to translate information in the DNA into proteins and that three bases in the DNA always specify one amino acid in a protein. 1957-09-19T00:00:00+0000The feat was achieved by Arthur Kornberg. He published his experiment in the Journal of Biological Chemsitry in May 1958.1957-10-01T00:00:00+0000Prize awarded to Sanger 'for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin'.1958-01-01T00:00:00+0000Franklin was a British biophysicist who provided the first evidence of the double helix structure of DNA. She captured the structure in photo 51, an image she made of DNA using x-ray crystallography in 1952. Data from the photo was pivotal to Crick and Watson's building of their DNA double helical structure of DNA which they won the Nobel Prize in 1962. Sadly Franklin died too young, age 37, to receive the Nobel Prize for her work. 1958-04-16T00:00:00+0000The American molecular biologists Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl described how DNA replicates, arguing that each strand of the DNA serves as a template for the replicated strand. This was based on some experiments they conducted using a new technique called density gradient centrifugation which they invented. The Meselson-Stahl experiment involved using the centrifugal force to separate molecules based on their densities. The work was published in M Meselson, FW Stahl, 'The Replication of DNA in Escherichia coli', PNAS, 44 (1958), 671–82, doi:10.1073/pnas.44.7.6711958-07-15T00:00:00+0000A team of scientists showed that genes controlled the processes by which enzymes are produced in Escherichia coli, a single-celled bacteria. The work was published in Arthur B Pardee, Francois Jacob, Jaques Monod, 'The Genetic Control and Cytoplasmic Expression of Inducibility in the Synthesis of ?-galactosidase by E. coli', Journal Molecular Biology, 1 (1969). 165-78. 1959-03-16T00:00:00+0000This was done by Paul Zamecnik in a lecture he gave to the Harvey Society in New York. 1959-05-01T00:00:00+0000The method, known as the T4 rII system, was developed by Seymour Benson. It involved cross-breeding two different mutant strains of the T4 bacteriophage and recording when a recombination resulted in a normal rII sequence. Based on his mapping of over 2400 rII mutants Benzour provided the first evidence that the gene is not an indivisible entity and that genes are linear. S Benzer, 'On the Topology of the Genetic Fine Structure', PNAS, 45/11 (1959), 1607–20. 1959-11-01T00:00:00+0000Non-profit institution founded by Robert S Ledley to explore the use of computers in biomedical research. It is eventually located at Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington, D.C.1960-01-01T00:00:00+00001960-01-01T00:00:00+0000Work by Har Gobind Khorana, Indian-born American biochemist on RNA and Robert Holley, American biochemist, on transfer RNA, helps piece together the genetic code. 1961-01-01T00:00:00+0000McClintock noticed the phenomenon during her experiments with maize. She reported her findings to the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. 1961-01-01T00:00:00+0000The experiment was conducted by Sidney Brenner, Francois Jacob, and Matt Meselson and published as 'An unstable intermediate carrying information from genes to ribosomes for protein synthesis', Nature, 190 (1961), 576-81. They established the mRNA was responsible for transporting genetic information from the nucleus to the protein-making machinery in a cell. 1961-05-13T00:00:00+0000Marshall Nirenberg, American biochemist, Heinrich Mathaei, a German biochemist, performed an experiment that deciphered the first of the 64 triplet codons in the genetic code. Their experiment involved the use of an extract from bacterial cells that can make proteins, and adding an artificial form of RNA made up entirely of uracil-containing nucleotides. This produced a protein made up entirely of the amino acid phenylalanine. The experiment not only cracked the first codon of the genetic code but also demonstrated that RNA controls the production of specific types of protein. 1961-05-15T00:00:00+0000Sanger now has close contact with protein crystallographers, molecular geneticists and protein chemists1962-01-01T00:00:00+0000Werner Arber, Swiss microbiologist and geneticist, and his doctoral student Daisy Dussoix proposed that bacteria produce restriction and modification enzymes to counter invading viruses. They published their findings in 'Host specificity of DNA produced by Escherichia coli I and II', Journal Molecular Biology, 5 (1962), 18–36 and 37-49.1962-01-23T00:00:00+0000The award was given to James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins. The work of these individuals was built upon that of Rosalind Franklin who died before the Nobel Prize was awarded. 1962-10-18T00:00:00+0000The prize was awarded to James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins who helped to show that the DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind round each other like a twisted ladder. They argued that each strand contains a backbone made up of alternating groups of sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups and that each sugar had an attached one of four nucelotide bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or thymine (T). Much of this work rested on the work of Rosalind Franklin and and her student Ray Gosling. Franklin died before the Nobel Prize was awarded. 1962-10-19T00:00:00+0000Witkin proposed that UV-induced block of cell-division was due to the inhibition of a DNA replication enzyme. EM Witkin, 'Photoreversal and dark repair of mutations to prototrophy induced by ultraviolet light in photoreactivable and non-photoreactivable strains of Escherichia coli', Mutat Res, 106 (1964), 22–36.1964-05-01T00:00:00+0000Robert Holley and colleagues sequence Escherichia coli alanine transfer RNA, laying the foundation for DNA sequencing. 1965-01-01T00:00:00+0000The book contained all protein sequences known to-date. It was the result of a collective effort led by Margaret Dayhoff to co-ordinate the ever-growing amount of information about protein sequences and their biochemical function. It provided the model for GenBank and many other molecular databases. 1965-01-01T00:00:00+0000900 page monograph provides the first introduction to the application of digital computing in biology and medicine. 1965-01-01T00:00:00+0000Tested on ribosomal RNA1965-01-01T00:00:00+0000The code was worked out by Marshall Nirenberg with the help of his colleagues Heinrich Mathaei and Severo Ochoa. They showed that a sequence of three nucleotide bases (a codon) determined each of the 20 amino acids that make up proteins. The code was painstakingly worked out and recorded on a series of charts. Together these charts plotted out how a DNA sequence gets translated into an RNA sequence and in turn is translated into a protein sequence.1965-01-18T00:00:00+0000The prediction was published in W. Arber, 'Host-controlled modification of bacteriophage', Annual Review Microbiology, 19 (1965), 365-78. it was based on some research he carried out in the early 1960s with his doctoral student, Daisy Dussoix. They found that bacteria protect themselves against invading viruses by producing two types of enzymes. One cut up the DNA of the virus and the other restricted its growth. Arber believed these two enzymes could provide an important tool for cutting and pasting DNA, the method now used in genetic engineering. 1965-10-01T00:00:00+0000The enzyme was made by four different research teams headed up Martin Gellert, Robert Lehman, Charles Richardson, and Jerard Hurwitz. Its discovery was pivotal to the development of recombinant DNA.1966-01-01T00:00:00+0000The sequencer was developed by Pehr Victor Edman with Geoffrey Begg1967-01-01T00:00:00+0000The technique was developed by Mary Weiss and Howard Green. Their method involved fusing a mouse cell that was unable to make the enzyme thymidine kinase with a human cell that could make the enzyme. They then let the cells multiply in a nutrient solution that was deadly to any cells that lacked the enzyme. This killed off all the cells except one clump of identical cells (clone) that produced the enzyme. These cells they found contained the same identical clone. Weiss and Green's technique provided a crucial step towards human gene mapping. Their work was published in 'Human-mouse hybrid cell lines containing partial complements of human chromosomes and functioning human genes', PNAS USA 58/3 (1967): 1104-11. 1967-09-01T00:00:00+0000Mehran Goulian and Arthur Kornberg managed to assemble the genome using one strand of natural antiviral DNA. The two scientists announced their achievement to a press conference as part of an effort to increase the American public's appreciation of government funded scientific work. It, however, generated debate about whether life should be created in a test tube. The achievement was an important stepping stone to the development of recombinant DNA. 1967-12-14T00:00:00+0000Ray Wu and A.D. Kaiser report on the partial sequence of bacteriophage lambda DNA in the Journal of Molecular Biology, 35/3 (1968), 523-37. 1968-01-01T00:00:00+00001968-01-01T00:00:00+0000Kjell Kleppe, a Norwegian scientist working in H. Gobind Khorana's Institute for Enzyme Research at University of Wisconsin publishes papers describing the principles of PCR.1969-01-01T00:00:00+0000Called Thermus aquaticus (Taq) this enzyme becomes a standard source of enzymes because it can withstand higher temperatures than those from E Coli. Taq is later important in the PCR technique. 1969-01-01T00:00:00+0000This was developed by Peter Lobhan, a graduate student of Dale Kaiser at Stanford University.1969-01-01T00:00:00+0000W. Arber, S.Linn, 'DNA modification and restriction', Annual Review Biochemistry, 38 (1969), 467-500.1969-07-01T00:00:00+0000Achived by Har Gobind Khorana at the University of Wisconsin-Madison1970-01-01T00:00:00+0000The method uses (quinacrine mustard) which causes chromosomes to show light and dark lateral bands along their length. This makes it possible to accurately identify all 22 autosomes and X and Y chromosomes. With this method scientists can observe slight abnormalities and extra chromosomes such as those implicated in Down's syndrome. The staining technique was devised by Torbjourn Casperson, Lore Zech and other colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden. It was published in T Caspersson, L Zech, C Johansson, EJ Modest, 'Identification of human chromosomes by DNA-binding fluorescent agents', Chromosoma, 30/2 (1970), 213-27, DOI:10.1007/BF00282002 1970-06-01T00:00:00+0000The finding was published in Hamilton O Smith, Kent W Wilcox, 'A restriction enzyme from Hemophilus influenzae. I. Purification and general properties',Journal of Molecular Biology, 51/2 (1970), 379-91. Restriction enzymes are now workhorses of molecular biology. They are essential in the development of recombinant DNA and were pivotal to the foundation of the biotechnology industry. 1970-07-01T00:00:00+0000Reverse transcriptase is a restriction enzyme that cuts DNA molecules at specific sites. The enzyme was simultaneously discovered independently by Howard Temin and David Baltimore. Temin made the discovery while working on Rous sacoma virions and Baltimore was working on the poliovirus and vesicular stomatis virus. The discovery laid the foundations for the the disciplines of retrovirology and cancer biology and ability to produce recombinant DNA. The findings were published in D Baltimore, 'RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of RNA tumour viruses' Nature, 226 (1970), 1209–11 and HM Temin, S Mizutani, 'RNA-dependent DNA polymerase in virions of Rous sarcoma virus', Nature, 226 (1970), 1211–13. 1970-07-27T00:00:00+0000The aim of her docrtoal research was to figure out how to replicate and express recombinant DNA in E. coli. 1970-09-01T00:00:00+0000K. Kleppe, E Ohtsuka, R Kleppe, I Molineux, HG Khorana, "Studies on polynucleotides *1, *2XCVI. Repair replication of short synthetic DNA's as catalyzed by DNA polymerases", Journal of Molecular Biology, 56/2 (1971), 341-61. The method provides an artificial system of primers and templates that allows DNA polymerase to copy segments of the gene being synthesised. 1971-01-01T00:00:00+0000This was done in Dale Kaiser's laboratory by Douglas Berg together with Janet Mertz and David Jackson1971-01-01T00:00:00+0000The 12 base sequence of bacteriophage lambda DNA is published by Ray Wu and Ellen Taylor in the Journal of Molecular Biology, 57 (1971) 0, 491-511. 1971-05-01T00:00:00+0000Robert Pollack contacted Paul Berg to raise concerns about the potential biohazards of experiments Mertz, his doctoral research student, planned to do involving the introduction of genes from the oncovirus SV40 in the human gut bacteria, E. Coli. Following this Berg self-imposed a moratorium on experiments in his laboratory involving the cloning of SV40 in E-Coli.1971-06-01T00:00:00+0000The power of restriction enzymes to cut DNA was demonstrated by Kathleen Danna, a graduate student, with Daniel Nathans, her doctoral supervisor, at Johns Hopkins University. They published the technique in 'Specific cleavage of simian virus 40 DNA by restriction endonuclease of Hemophilus influenzae', PNAS USA, 68/12 (1971), 2913-17.1971-12-01T00:00:00+0000This took place during an unscheduled extra session held one evening during a three-day EMBO workshop near Basel on DNA restriction and modification. The session was chaired by Norton Zinder. The discussion set the stage for the subsequent Asilomar Conference in 1975 which led to the first guideline for experiments with genetic engineering. 1972-09-26T00:00:00+0000The recombinant DNA was made by Paul Berg and colleagues. It was generated by cutting DNA with a restriction and then using ligase to paste together two DNA strands to form a hybrid circular molecule. The method was published in D A Jackson, R H Symons, P Berg, 'Biochemical Method for Inserting New Genetic Information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA Molecules Containing Lambda Phage Genes and the Galactose Operon of Escherichia coli', PNAS USA, 69/10 (1972), 2904-09.1972-10-01T00:00:00+0000It was based on their finding that when DNA is cleaved with EcoRI, a restriction enzyme, it has sticky ends. JE Mertz, RW Davis, 'Cleavage of DNA by RI restriction endonuclease generates cohesive ends', PNAS, 69, 3370–3374 (1972). 1972-11-01T00:00:00+0000This is achieved by Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam at Harvard University using a method known as wandering-spot analysis.1973-01-01T00:00:00+0000The phenomenon was worked out by Evelyn Witkin with Miroslav Radman. They showed that the repair is induced DNA damage which activates a co-ordinated cellular response. Their key papers on the matter were EM Witkin, DL George, 'Ultraviolet mutagenesis in polA and UvrA polA derivatives of Escherichia coli B-R: evidence for an inducible error-prone repair system', Genetics, 73/Suppl 73 (1973), 91–10; M Radman, 'SOS repair hypothesis: Phenomenology of an inducible DNA repair which is accompanied by mutagenesis', Basic Life Science, 5A (1975), 355–67; EM Witkin, 'Ultraviolet mutagenesis and inducible DNA repair in Escherichia coli', Bacteriol Review, 40/4 (1976), 869–907. 1973-01-01T00:00:00+0000Devised by Bruce Ames, the test uses several strains of the bacterium Salmonella typhimurium that carry mutations in genes involved in histidine synthesis. The aim of the test is to pick up whether a given chemical can cause mutations in the DNA of the test organism. Positive results from the test indicate that a chemical is mutagenic and therefore may cause cancer. The technique was published in BN Ames, FD Lee, WE Durston, 'An improved bacterial test system for the detection and classification of mutagens and carcinogens, PNAS USA, 70/3 (1973), 782-6. 1973-03-01T00:00:00+0000The first person who proposed the workshop was Frank Ruddle who convened the first meeting. He was inspired to set up the workshop by the rapid development in mapping by somatic-cell hybridisation. The workshop was sponsored by the National Science Foundation and March of Dimes. It was held at Yale University, New Haven. Papers from the conference were published in Cytogenet Cell Genetics, 13 (1974), 1-216. 1973-06-10T00:00:00+0000The work was carried out by Stanley Cohen and Annie Chang at Stanford University in collaboration with Herbert Boyer and Robert Helling at the University of California San Francisco. They managed to splice sections of viral DNA and bacterial DNA with the same restriction enzyme to create a plasmid with dual antibiotic resistance. They then managed to insert this recombinant DNA molecule into the DNA of bacteria to express the new recombinant DNA. The technique showed it was possible to reproduce recombinant DNA in bacteria. It was published in SN Cohen, ACY Chang, HW Boyer, RB Belling, 'Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids In Vitro', PNAS USA, 10/11 (1973), 3240-3244. 1973-11-01T00:00:00+0000The National Institutes of Health forms a Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to oversee recombinant genetic research.1974-01-01T00:00:00+0000JF Morrow, SN Cohen, ACY Chang, HW Boyer, HM Goodman, RB Helling, 'Replication and Transcription of Eukaryotic DNA in Esherichia coli', PNAS USA, 171/5 (1974), 1743-47.1974-05-01T00:00:00+0000The call was published by P Berg et al 'Biohazards of Recombinant DNA,' Science, 185 (1974), 3034. It argued for the establishment of an advisory committee to oversee experimental procedures to evaluate the potential biological hazards of recombinant DNA molecules and develop procedures to minimise the spread of such molecules within human and other populations. 1974-07-05T00:00:00+0000Her thesis focused on methods to isolate and characterise mutant variants of SV40 1975-01-01T00:00:00+0000The method enables 80 nucleotides to be sequenced in one go. Represents radical new approach which allows direct visual scanning of a sequence. 1975-01-01T00:00:00+0000A.D. Riggs, 'X inactivation, differentiation, and DNA methylation', Cytogenet Cell Genet, 14 (1975), 9–25; R. Sager, R. Kitchin, 'Selective silencing of eukaryotic DNA', Science, 189/4201 (1975), 426-33. 1975-01-01T00:00:00+0000R. Holliday, J.E. Pugh, 'DNA modification mechanisms and gene activity during development', Science, 187 (1975), 226–32.1975-01-01T00:00:00+0000The conference, organised by Paul Berg had 140 professional participants (including biologists, physicians and lawyers). In addition to the moratorium the conference established several principles for safely conducting any genetic engineering. Containment was considered essential to any experimental design, such as the use of hoods, and the use of biological barriers was suggested to limit the spread of recombinant DNA. This included using bacterial hosts that could not survive in natural environment and the use of vectors (plasmids, bacteriophages and other viruses) that could only grow in specified hosts. The conference also called for a moratorium on genetic engineering research in order to have time to estimate the biohazard risks of recombinant DNA research and develop guidelines.1975-02-01T00:00:00+0000Yeast genes expressed in E. coli bacteria for the first time1976-01-01T00:00:00+0000The suggestion was put forward by J Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus based on their research on the SRC gene of the Rous sarcoma virus, which they found to be nearly identical to a sequence in the normal cellular DNA of several different bird species. The findings were published in D Stehelin, HE Varmus, JM Bishop, PK Vogt, 'DNA related to the transforming gene(s) of avian sarcoma viruses is present in normal avian DNA', Nature, 260/5547 (1976), 170-3.1976-03-11T00:00:00+0000Robert Swanson, venture capitalist and Herbert Boyer, American biochemist, established Genentech in San Francisco. It was the first biotechnology company established specifically dedicated to commercialising recombinant DNA. Its founding marked the start of what was to become a burgeoning biotechnology industry. 1976-04-01T00:00:00+0000The guidelines were issued following a public meeting held in February 1976. 1976-06-23T00:00:00+0000Genetically engineered bacteria are used to synthesize human growth protein.1977-01-01T00:00:00+0000This is found to contain 5,385 nucleotides. It is the first DNA based organism to have its complete genome sequenced. Sanger and his team use the plus and minus technique to determine the sequence. 1977-01-01T00:00:00+0000Duncan McCallum, a business computer programmer in Cambridge wrote the first computer programme for DNA sequencing. It was used by Sanger's sequencing group at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. 1977-01-01T00:00:00+0000Two separate teams, one led by Fred Sanger at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK, and one composed of Allan Maxam, and Walter Gilbert at Harvard University publish two different methods for sequencing DNA. The first, known as the Sanger Method, or dideoxy sequencing, involves the breaking down and then building up of DNA sequences. The second, the Maxam-Gilbert method, involves the partial chemical modification of nucleotides in DNA. 1977-02-01T00:00:00+0000Genentech scientists succeed in genetically engineering human insulin in E-Coli.1978-01-01T00:00:00+0000The prize was jointly awarded to Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O Smith. Arber was the first to discover the enzymes; Smitth demonstrated their capacity to cut DNA at specific sites and Nathans showed how they could be used to construct genetic maps. With their ability to cut DNA into defined fragments restriction enzymes paved the way to the development of genetic engineering. 1978-10-01T00:00:00+0000The patent was filed on the basis of work undertaken by Kenneth Murray. 1978-12-22T00:00:00+0000The cloning, achieved by Beverly Griffin with Tomas Lindahl, was announced to a meeting at Cold Spring Harbor1979-01-01T00:00:00+0000The work, funded by Biogen, was undertaken as part of a project to develop recombinant hepatitis B vaccine. It was published in CJ Burrell, P Mackay, PJ Greenaway, PH Hofsneider, K Murray, 'Expression in Escheria Coli of hepatitis B virus DNA sequences cloned in plasmid pBR322', Nature, 279/5708 (1979), 43-47. 1979-02-01T00:00:00+0000F Galibert, E Mandart, F Fitoussi, P Tiollais, P Charnay, , 'Nucleotide sequence of the hepatitis B virus genome (subtype ayw) cloned in E. coli. Nature, 281/5733 (1979), 646-50; P. Charnay, C Pourcel, A Louise, A Fritsch, P Tiollais, 'Cloning in Escherichia coli and physical structure of hepatitis B virion DNA', PNAS USA, 76/5 (1979), 2222-26; P Charnay, E Mandart, A Hampe, F Fitoussi, P Tiollais, F Galibert, 'Localization on the viral genome and nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the two major polypeptides of the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBs Ag)', Nucleic Acids Research, 7/2 (1979), 335-46.1979-05-01T00:00:00+0000The research was funded by Merck with the aim of developing a recombinant vaccine against hepatitis B. It was published in P Valenzuela, P Gray, M Quiroga, J Zaldivar, H M Goodman, WJ Rutter, 'Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the major protein of hepatitis B virus surface antigen', Nature, 280/5725 (1979), 815e819.1979-08-30T00:00:00+0000The patent was based on the work of Kenneth Murray. It was granted in July 1990 as European Patent (UK) No 0182442. 1979-12-21T00:00:00+0000US Supreme Court, in the landmark case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, approves the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms1980-01-01T00:00:00+0000The American scientists Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer are awarded the first US patent for gene cloning.1980-01-01T00:00:00+0000Milstein suggests at a Wellcome Foundation lecture that by using genetic engineering scientists might be able to design tailor-made monoclonal antibodies that mimic antibodies made by the human body. This would free them up from a dependence on rodents for producing monoclonal antibodies. He publishes the idea in C. Milstein, 'Monoclonal antibodies from hybrid myelomas: Wellcome Foundation Lecture 1980', Proceedings Royal Society of London, 211 (1981), 393-412.1980-01-01T00:00:00+0000Prize shared with Walter Gilbert. Awarded on the basis of their 'contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids.' 1980-01-01T00:00:00+0000The aim is to establish a centralised sequence computerised database tha is available free of charge. 1980-01-01T00:00:00+0000Conducted by a team led by Beverly Griffin, the project's completion was a major achievement. It was one of the largest tracts of eukaryotic DNA sequenced up to this time. The work was published in E Soeda, JR Arrand, N Smolar, JE Walsh, BE Griffin, ‘Coding potential and regulatory signals of the polyoma virus genome’, Nature, 283 (1980) 445-53.1980-01-01T00:00:00+0000JC Edman, P Gray, P Valenzuela, LB Rall, WJ Rutter, 'Integration of hepatitis B virus sequences and their expression in a human hepatoma cell', Nature, 286/5772 (1980), 535-38.1980-07-31T00:00:00+0000The mice were made with the help recombinant DNA technology. JW Gordon, GA Scangos, DJ Plotkin, J A Barbosa, FH Ruddle, 'Genetic transformation of mouse embryos by microinjection of purified DNA', PNAS USA, 77 (1980), 7380–4.1980-09-01T00:00:00+0000The database was started by Margaret Dayhoff at the NBRF in the mid 1960s and comprised over 200,000 residues. Within a month of its operation more than 100 scientists had requested access to the database. The database was funded with contributions from m Genex, Merck, Eli Lilly, DuPont, Hoffman–La Roche, and Upjohn, and computer time donated by Pfizer Medical Systems.1980-09-15T00:00:00+0000First genetically-engineered plant is reported1981-01-01T00:00:00+0000First mice genetically cloned1981-01-01T00:00:00+0000S.J. Compere, R.D. Palmiter, 'DNA methylation controls the inducibility of the mouse metallothionein-I gene lymphoid cells', Cell, 25 (1981), 233–240. 1981-07-01T00:00:00+00001981-07-01T00:00:00+0000The work, led by Beverly Griffin, opened up the possibility of sequencing the virus. It was published in J R Arrand, L. Rymo, J E Walsh, E Bjorck, T Lindahl and B E Griffin, ‘Molecular cloning of the complete Epstein-Barr virus genome as a set of overlapping restriction endonuclease fragments’, Nucleic Acids Research, 9/13 (1981), 2999-2014.1981-07-10T00:00:00+0000In this method genomic DNA is randomly fragmented and cloned to produce a random library in E Coli. The clones are then sequenced at random and the results assembled by computer which compares all of the sequence reads and aligns the matching sequences to produce the complete genome sequence. 1982-01-01T00:00:00+00001982-01-01T00:00:00+0000Funding secured for the setting up of GenBank, to be located at Los Alamos National Laboratory. It was to serve as a repository for newly determined sequences, as a tool for sequencers assembling genomes and for bioinformatic researchers. 1982-06-01T00:00:00+0000The first drug (human insulin), based on recombinant DNA, is marketed. 1982-10-01T00:00:00+00001983-01-01T00:00:00+0000A.P. Feinberg, B. Vogelstein, 'Hypomethylation distinguishes genes of some human cancers from their normal counterparts', Nature, 301/5895 (1983), 89-92.1983-01-06T00:00:00+0000Speigelman was an American molecular biologist who investigated how cells form enzymes, DNA and RNA structures. He is credited with improving the nucleic acid hybridisation technique. This technique makes it possible to detect specific DNA and RNA strands in cells. It is now used for analysing the organisation of the genome, studying gene expression and for developing recombinant DNA.1983-01-20T00:00:00+0000Kary Mullis, an American biochemist based at Cetus, proposed an alternative method to Sanger's DNA sequencing method to analyse Sickle cell Anaemia mutation which laid the foundation for the development of the PCR technique. 1983-05-01T00:00:00+0000Mullis reports on his production of olgionucleotides and some results from his experiments with PCR to Cetus Corporation's annual meeting but few show any interest. 1984-06-01T00:00:00+0000The trial was done with 37 healthy adult volunteers. The vaccine was made using HBsAg cloned in yeast. EM Scolnick, AA McLean, DJ West, WJ McAleer WJ Miller, EB Buynak, 'Clinical evaluation in healthy adults of a hepatitis B vaccine made by recombinant DNA', JAMA 251/21 (1984), 2812-15. 1984-06-01T00:00:00+0000The first genetic fingerprint was discovered by accident by Alec Jeffrey when conducting experiments to look at how genetic variations evolved. 1984-09-10T00:00:00+0000Two teams of scientists publish methods for the generation of chimeric monoclonal antibodies, that is antibodies possessing genes that are half-human and half mouse. Each team had developed their techniques separate from each other. The first team was lead by Michael Neuberger together with Terence Rabbitts and other colleagues at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge. The second team consisted of Sherie Morrison and colleagues at Stanford University together with Gabrielle Boulianne and others at the University of Toronto. 1984-12-01T00:00:00+0000The scientists found the enzyme in the model organism Tetrahymena thermophila, a fresh-water protozoan with a large number of telomeres. CW Greider, EH Blackburn, 'Identification of a specific telomere terminal transferase activity in Tetrahymena extracts', Cell. 43 (2 Pt 1) (1985), 405–13.1984-12-01T00:00:00+0000A. Bird, M. Taggart, M. Frommer, O.J. Miller, D. Macleod, ‘A fraction of the mouse genome that is derived from islands of nonmethylated, CpG-rich DNA’, Cell, 40/1 (1985 Jan;40(1):91-9. 1985-01-01T00:00:00+0000The application establishes polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as a method for amplifying DNA in vitro. PCR uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments. The application is broad and is based on analysis of Sickle Cell Anaemia mutation via PCR and Oligomer restriction. 1985-03-01T00:00:00+0000This was developed by the British geneticist Alec Jeffreys. He developed the technique as part of his efforts to trace genes through family lineages. It was based on his discovery that each individual had unique numbers of repeated DNA fragments, called restriction fragment length polymorphisms, in their cells. The principle was described in A J Jeffreys, V Wilson, S L Thein, 'Hypervariable 'minisatellite' regions in human DNA', Nature, 314 (1985), 67-73. 1985-03-07T00:00:00+0000Undertaken to prove maternity of a 15 year old boy threatened with deportation to Ghana by the UK Home Office because of doubts over the identity of his mother, an immigrant based in the UK. The test proved the boy was related to his mother. Without the test the mother and son would not have been able to remain together in the same country. 1985-05-17T00:00:00+0000The PCR technique enabled the amplification of small fragments of DNA on a large scale. It was published in RK Saiki et al, 'Enzymatic Amplification of beta-globin Genomic Sequences and Restriction Site Analysis for Diagnosis of Sickle Cell Anemia', Science, 230 (1985), 1350-54.1985-12-20T00:00:00+0000Leroy Hood and colleagues at the California Institute of Technology together with a team including Lloyd Smith and Michael and Tim Hunkapiller, develop the first automated DNA sequencing machine. The machine is commercialised by Applied Biosystems. 1986-01-01T00:00:00+0000Biologists gathered at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory laid out the first plans for mapping and sequencing the human genome. Among those attending were Walter Gilbert, James Watson and Paul Berg. Many scientists were highly sceptical that such a project was feasible because of the large size of the genome and the time and costs involved. Up to this point scientists had only managed to sequence some viral DNAs which had 100,000 DNA base pairs. The human genome was 10,000 bigger in size. 1986-04-30T00:00:00+0000Greg Winter together with other colleagues from the Laboratory Molecular Biology demonstrate the feasibility of building a new more human-like monoclonal antibody by grafting on to the humab antibody portions of a variable region from a mouse antibody. This reduced the mouse component of the monoclonal antibody to just 5%, making the monoclonal antibody safer and more effective for use in humans. The technique was published in PT Jones, PH Dear, J Foote, MS Neuberger, G Winter, 'Replacing the complementarity-determining regions in a mouse antibody with those from a mouse', Nature, 321 (29 May 1986), 522-5.1986-05-01T00:00:00+0000The vaccine was first approved in West Germany, in May, and then in the US in July. The vaccine was regarded as a breakthrough because it was made from a genetically engineered sub-particle of the virus. This made it much safer than the original vaccine which used the virus sub-particle sourced from the blood of hepatitis B sufferers. The vaccine heralded a new era for the production of vaccines and is a major weapon against one of the most infectious diseases. 1986-05-01T00:00:00+0000Hoffmann-LaRoche and Schering-Plough gain FDA permission to market genetically engineered alpha interferon for use as treatment hairy cell leukaemia. The development of interferon rested on the application of both genetic cloning and monoclonal antibodies. 1986-06-04T00:00:00+00001986-12-01T00:00:00+0000JH Hoofnagle, KD Mullen, B Jones, et al, 'Treatment of chornic non-A, non and non-B hepatitis with recombinant human alpha interferon' NEJM, 315 (1986), 1575-78.1986-12-18T00:00:00+0000The result was published in RW Malone, PL Felgner, IM Verma (1 Aug 1989) 'Cationic liposome-mediated RNA transfection', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 86/16, 6077-6081.1987-01-01T00:00:00+0000Campath-1G is humanised, resulting in Campath-1H. It is accomplished with technology developed by Greg Winter.1988-01-01T00:00:00+0000Funding secured for precursor of the Human Genome Project. US$10.7 million provided by Department of Energery and US$17.2 million by National Institutes of Health.1988-01-01T00:00:00+0000This method, called FASTA, is published by William R Pearson and David J Lipman in Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 85/8 (April 1988), 2444-8. This is now a common tool for bioinformatics. It allos for the comparison and aligning of sequences. 1988-04-01T00:00:00+0000USPTO patent 4,736,866 awarded for transgenic mouse with activated oncogenes created by Philip Leder and Timonthy A Stewart at Harvard University. The two scientists isolated a gene that causes cancer in many mammals, including humans, and inserted it into fertilised mouse eggs. The aim was to genetically engineer a mouse as a model for furthering cancer research and the testing of new drugs. It was the first animal ever given patent protection in the USA. 1988-04-12T00:00:00+0000T. Bestor, A. Laudano, R. Mattaliano, V. Ingram, 'Cloning and sequencing of a cDNA encoding DNA methyltransferase of mouse cells', Journal Molecular Biology, 203 (1988), 971–83. 1988-10-20T00:00:00+00001989-01-01T00:00:00+00001989-05-01T00:00:00+00001989-05-25T00:00:00+0000V. Greger, E. Passarge, W. Hopping, E. Messmer, B. Horsthemke, 'Epigenetic changes may contribute to the formation and spontaneous regression of retinoblastoma', Human Genetics, 83 (1989), 155–58. 1989-09-01T00:00:00+0000Joint working group of the US Department of Energy and the National Institututes of Health present plan Understanding Our Genetic Inheritance: The US Human Genome Project.1990-02-01T00:00:00+0000An international scientific collaboration, the project was initiated by the US Department of Energy. Its aim was to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA, and to identify and map approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes of the human genome. 1990-10-01T00:00:00+0000The was determined by a team led by Marie-Claire King who conducted a genetic analysis of 23 extended families, a total of 329 relatives. J Hall, M Lee, B Newman, J Morrow, L Anderson, B Huey, M King, 'Linkage of early-onset familial breast cancer to chromosome 17q21', Science, 250/4988 (1990): 1684–89. 1990-12-01T00:00:00+0000A team at the at the University of Washington, led by Mary-Claire King, demonstrated that a single gene on chromosome 17, later known as the BRCA1 gene, induced many breast and ovarian cancers. This was a major breakthrough as prior to this most scientists were sceptical of the role played between genetics and complex human disease. The team published their findings in JM Hall, et al, 'Linkage of early-onset familial breast cancer to chromosome 17q21', Science, 250/4988 (1990), 1684-89. 1990-12-21T00:00:00+00001992-01-01T00:00:00+0000M. Frommer, L.E. McDonald, D.S. Millar, C.M. Collis, F. Watt, G.W. Grigg, P.L. Molloy, C.L. Paul, 'A genomic sequencing protocol that yields a positive display of 5-methylcytosine residues in individual DNA strands', PNAS, 89/5 (1992), 1827-31.1992-03-01T00:00:00+0000The drug was developed by Schering Plough. The drug helps suppress the replication of the hepatitis B virus. 1992-07-13T00:00:00+0000W.F. Zapisek, G.M. Cronin, B.D. Lyn-Cook, L.A. Poirier, 'The onset of oncogene hypomethylation in the livers of rats fed methyl-deficient, amino acid-defined diets', Carcinogenesis, 13/10 (1992), 1869-72.1992-10-01T00:00:00+0000Cetus was the first biotechnology company created. It was set up in California by Ronald E. Cape, Peter Farley, and Nobelist Donald A. Glaser. Cetus Corporation initially focused its efforts on the automation of selecting for industrial microorganisms that could produce greater amounts of chemical feedstocks, antibiotics or vaccine components. From the late 1970s the company turned its attention to genetic engineering and by 1983 had created its own recombinant interleukin (IL-2) for treating renal cancer, which was eventually approved 2 years after Cetus was sold. The company is best known for its development of development of the revolutionary DNA amplification technique known as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology. 1993-10-13T00:00:00+0000Ochoa was a Spanish biochemist and molecular biologist whose research was devoted to understanding enzymes and their role in intermediary metabolism. He was one of the first scientists to show the pivotal role of high energy phosphates, like adenosine triphosphate, in the storage and release of energy. During this work he discovered the enzyme polynucleotide phosphorylase, which plays an important role in the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA). This enzyme provided the foundation for the subsequent synthesis of artificial RNA and the breaking of the human genetic code. Ochoa was awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1959 for his work on the biological synthesis of RNA. 1993-11-01T00:00:00+0000The drug, a recombinant human deoxyribonuclease, was developed by the Genentech researcher Steven Shak. It was the first new treatment for cystic fibrosis in 30 years. The enzyme was engineered to dissolve mucus plugs in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients. The product was marketed as Pulmozyme. 1993-12-30T00:00:00+0000Pauling was an American chemist and biochemist who helped to pioneer quantum chemistry and mechanics. He combined methods from x-ray crystallography, molecular model building and quantum chemistry. Pauling was the first to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. In 1954 he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his 'research on the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex structures.' He also co-authored the first paper to suggest sickle-cell anaemia was a genetic disease, which introduced the concept of 'molecular disease'. Pauling was also awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 for his opposition to nuclear weapons. 1994-08-19T00:00:00+0000Abciximab (ReoPro) approved by the FDA and European regulatory authorities to prevent blot clots during coronary artery procedures like angioplasty. The monoclonal antibody was originally developed by Barry Coller at State University of New York and commercially developed by Centocor. The drug showed for the first time that monoclonal antibodies could be used for the treatment of acute disease conditions. 1994-12-22T00:00:00+0000P.W. Laird, L. Jackson-Grusby, A. Fazeli, S. L. Dickinson, W. E. Jung, E. Li, R.A. Weinberg, R. Jaenisch, 'Suppression of intestinal neoplasia by DNA hypomethylation', Cell, 81 (1995),197-205, April 21, 1995,1995-04-21T00:00:00+0000A team of scientists led by Craig Venter at The Institute of Genomics Research published the first complete sequence of the 1.8 Mbp genome of Haemophilus influenzae, a type of bacteria that can cause ear and respiratory infections, as well as meningitis in children. R D Fleischmann, et al, 'Whole-Genome Random Sequencing and Assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd', Science, 269/5223 (1995), 496–512.1995-07-28T00:00:00+00001996-01-01T00:00:00+0000Mostafa Ronaghi and Pal Nyren at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm develop pyrosequencing which allows for shotgun sequencing without cloning in E coli or any host cell. The marchinery and reagents involved in the method was first commercialised by Pyrosequencing AB.1996-01-01T00:00:00+0000Todd was a Scottish biochemist who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1957 for helping to elucidate the structure and synthesis of many of the building blocks of DNA and RNA: nucleotides, nucleosides and their co-enzymes. He also synthesised two important biochemical compounds: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). 1997-01-10T00:00:00+0000Daclizumab was approved by the FDA for the prevention of acute rejection of kidney transplants. The monoclonal antibody was developed by Protein Design Labs using a humanising method devised by Cary Queen and marketed together with F. Hoffmann-La Roche. 1997-12-01T00:00:00+0000Celera Corporation launches a parallel effort to sequence the human genome to the Human Genome Project. Celera's entry into the field pose policy concerns about open access to gene sequencing data and accelerates the sequencing process in the Human Genome Project. 1998-05-01T00:00:00+0000The genome sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis consists of approximately 4,400,000-base-pairs. The sequence was published in ST Cole et al 'Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence', Nature, 393 (1998), 537-44. By sequencing the genome of the bacteria scientists hoped to improve knowledge about its biology and to improve therapeutics against tuberculosis, a disease that continues to be a serious challenge in global health.1998-06-11T00:00:00+0000The work was undertaken by scientists at the University of Texas Health Centre in Houston and the Institute for Genomic Research in Rockville, MD. The genome is made up of 1.1 million base pairs of DNA. The work was published in CM Fraser et al, 'Complete genome sequence of Treponema pallidum, the syphilis spirochete', Science, 281/5375 (1998), 375-88.1998-07-17T00:00:00+0000The genome of the worm was found to have more than 19,000 genes. The sequence was found to follow those of viruses, several bacteria and a yeast. The project was initiated with the development of a clone-based physical map which was important for undertaking the molecular analysis of genes. The results were published by the C elegans Sequencing Consortium in Science, 282/5396 (1998), 2012-8. 1998-12-11T00:00:00+0000Sequence of the first human chromosome (22) is published. 1999-01-01T00:00:00+0000M. Toyota, N. Ahuja, M. Ohe-Toyota, J.G. Herman, S.B. Baylin, J-P.J. Issa, 'CpG island methylator phenotype in colorectal cancer', PNAS, 96/15 (1999), 8681–86.1999-07-20T00:00:00+0000Nathans was the first scientist to demonstrate how restriction enzymes could be used to cleave DNA and how to piece together its fragments to construct a complete map of DNA. His work inspired the use of restriction enzymes for many different biotechnology applications, including DNA sequencing and the construction of recombinant DNA. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1978 for his work on restriction enzymes.1999-11-16T00:00:00+0000M Akeson, D Branton, JJ Kasianowicz, E Brandin, DW Deamer (1999) 'Microsecond Time-Scale Discrimination Among Polycytidylic Acid, Polyadenylic Acid, and Polyuridylic Acid as Homopolymers or as Segments Within Single RNA Molecules', Biophysical Journal, 77/6, 3227-33. 1999-12-01T00:00:00+0000Together with Herbert Boyer, Swanson helped found Genentech, the first biotechnology company dedicated to commercialising recombinant DNA. From 1976 to 1990 Swanson was Chief Executive and Director of the company and played an instrumental role in leading it to become the first major biotechnology company to show a profit and go public. 1999-12-06T00:00:00+00002000-01-01T00:00:00+0000U.S. President Bill Clinton and the British Prime Minister Tony Blair announced the completion of a rough draft of the human genome. The human genome is now know to have more than 3 billion DNA base pairs. Overall the Human Genome Project took 13 years to complete and cost approximate 50 billion dollars. Findings from the work have allowed researchers to begin to understand the function of genes and proteins and their relationship with disease. 2000-06-26T00:00:00+0000The work was undertaken by an international team of scientists from Europe, the US and Japan. They sequenced the DNA of Arabidopsis thaliana, a flowering weed in the mustard family. The sequenced genome contains 25,498 genes encoding proteins from 11,000 families. The project took 4 years to complete. 2000-12-14T00:00:00+0000A consortium including scientists from Celera Genomics and 13 other organisations published the first consensus sequence of human genome. It was shown to have a 2.91 billion base pair sequence. The project took advantage of the DNA sequencing technique pioneered by Fred Sanger. 2001-02-16T00:00:00+00002002-01-01T00:00:00+0000The virologists Jeronimo Cello, Aniko Paul, and Eckard Wimmer of the State University of New York, Stony Brook reported constructing an almost perfect replica of the polio virus from published sequences of the virus, and its reverse transcription into viral RNA. Their work was first announced online in 'Chemical synthesis of poliovirus cDNA: Generation of infectious virus in the absence of natural template', Nature, (12 July 2002), doi:10.1038/news020708-17. 2002-07-12T00:00:00+0000The genomic sequence was completed for Plasmodium falciparum, the malaria parasite, which carries some 5,300 genes (Celera Genomics) and for malaria Anopheles gambiae, the mosquito's principal vector (TIGR and Sanger Centre). 2002-10-03T00:00:00+0000The Human Genome Project was completed, two years ahead of schedule and at a cost of US$2.7 billion. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in universities and research centres from the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany. 2003-04-14T00:00:00+0000A British molecular biologist, Smith was a key pioneer in nucleic acid research. One of the few to realise the importance of nucleic acids before Watson and Crick uncovered the structure of DNA in 1953, Smith helped to elucidate the structure of ribonucleic acid molecules (RNA), the genetic material of many plant and animal viruses. This was helped by his development of paper chromatographic methods for analysing nucleosides and other units which make up DNA. He also helped to discover rare and unexpected modifications of DNA bases in bacterial genomes which are now understood to prevent attack from DNA viruses.2003-11-22T00:00:00+00002004-01-01T00:00:00+0000Crick is best known for the work he did with James Watson that identified the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953, for which he shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1962. He also developed the central dogma of molecular biology which explained how genetic information flowed within a biological system, moving from DNA to RNA and then protein. His subsequent work looked at the way in which the brain works and the nature of consciousness.2004-07-28T00:00:00+0000Wilkins was a New Zealand biophysicist whose development of x-ray diffraction techniques helped determine the structure of DNA. He obtained the first x-ray patterns on DNA in 1950. This work led to his winning the Nobel Prize in 1962. Following his work on DNA, Wilkins directed his attention to studying the structure of various forms of RNA and a wide group of genetic problems, like ageing. In his younger years, Wilkins was recruited to work on the Manhattan atomic bomb project during the war. Wilkins became profoundly disillusioned with nuclear weapons after the bombing of Japan and was the president of the British Society for Social Responsibility in Science from 1969 to 1991. 2004-10-05T00:00:00+0000A microarray chip has a collection of microscopic DNA spots which are attached to a surface. Used to measure the expression of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome, microarray chips are now used for a wide number of clinical applications. The first microarray approved by the FDA was Roche's AmpliChip Cytochrome P450 Genotyping Test. This is designed to find the specific gene types of a patient to work out how they will metabolise certain medicines so as to guide what treatment and dose should be prescribed. 2004-12-23T00:00:00+0000Study conducted by team led by Shelley Berger published in Molecular Cell.2005-02-17T00:00:00+00002005-12-01T00:00:00+0000Drug made by MGI Pharma. approved for treatment of myelodysplastic syndromes, bone marrow disorders2006-01-01T00:00:00+0000 Germ-line cell experiments remain off-limit. Sequence of the last chromosome in the Human Genome Project is published in Nature.2006-05-01T00:00:00+0000Launched by the National Institutes of Health, the HMP aimed to generate resources that would enable the comprehensive characterisation of the human microbiome and analysis of its role in human health and disease. Overall the project characterised microbiota from 300 healthy individuals from 5 different sites: nasal passages, oral cavity, skin, gastrointestinal tract, and urogenital tract. 16S rRNA sequencing and metagenomic whole genome shotgun were performed to characterise the complexity of microbial communities at each body site.2007-01-01T00:00:00+00002007-05-01T00:00:00+0000Kornberg was an American biochemist renowned for his research on enzymes which create DNA. In 1956 he and his team isolated the first enzyme known to be involved in the replication of DNA. It would be called DNA polymerase I. For this work Kornberg shared the 1959 Nobel Prize for Medicine. The Prize was given for the discovery of the 'mechanisms in the biological synthesis of ribonucleic acid and deoxyribonucleic acid.'2007-10-26T00:00:00+0000The son of Jewish Polish immigrants, Benzer was an American molecular biologist who proved that genetic mutations were caused by changes in the DNA sequence. This was based on some experiments he pursued with mutant T4 bacteriophages, known as r mutants. In 1952 he spotted abnormal behaviour in one mutant strain and a year later devised a technique to measure the recombination frequency between different r mutant strains to map the substructure of a single gene. His work laid the path to determining the detailed structure of viral genes. Benzer also coined the term cistron to denote functional subunits of genes. Together with Ronald Konopka, his student, Benzer also discovered the first gene to control an organism's sense of time, in 1971. In later he worked on genes and the process of ageing in fruit flies.2007-11-30T00:00:00+0000Achieved by Emmanuel Skordalakes2008-01-01T00:00:00+0000The project was funded by the European Commission to study the link between the genes of the human gut microbiota and human health. It focused on two disorders of increasing importance in Europe - inflammatory bowel disease and obesity. 2008-01-01T00:00:00+0000Lederberg was an American geneticist who helped discover the mechanism of genetic recombination in bacteria. This was based on some experiments he performed with Edward Tatum in 1946 which involved mixing two different strains of bacteria. Their experiments also demonstrated for the first time that bacteria reproduced sexually, rather than by cells splitting in two, thereby proving that bacterial genetic systems were similar to those of multicellular organisms. Later on, in 1952, working with Norton Zinder, Lederberg found that certain bacteriophages (viruses that affect bacteria) could carry a bacterial gene from one bacterium to another. In 1958 Lederberg shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine for 'discoveries concerning genetic recombination and the organisation of the genetic material of bacteria.' 2008-02-02T00:00:00+0000Ray Wu pioneered the first primer-extension method for DNA sequencing which laid the foundation for the Human Genome Project. He was also instrumental in the application of genetic engineering to agricultural plants to improve their output and resistance to pests, salt and drought. 2008-02-10T00:00:00+0000Zamecnik was an American scientist who pioneered the in vitro synthesis of proteins and helped determine the way cells generate proteins. Together with Mahlon Hoagland and Mary Stephenson he showed that protein synthesis was activated by adenosine 5'-triphosphate and that ribosomes were the site of protein assembly. He also subsequently helped to discover transfer RNA and is credited with laying the foundation for the development of antisense therapies, a type of gene therapy. 2009-12-27T00:00:00+00002011-01-01T00:00:00+00002011-03-01T00:00:00+0000Khorana was an Indian chemist who shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Medicine for the elucidation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis. He helped demonstrate that the chemical composition and function of a new cell is determined by four nucleotides in DNA and that the nucleotide code is transmitted in groups of three, called codons, and these codons instruct the cell to start and stop the production of proteins. His work also laid the foundation for the development of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique that makes it possible to make billions of copies of small fragments of DNA. 2011-11-09T00:00:00+0000The device was announced to successfully decode 48,000-base genome of the Phi X 174 phage at a meeting held by Advances in Genome Biology and Technology in Florida. 2012-02-15T00:00:00+0000Sharon Peacock and Julian Parkhill together with other researchers from the University of Cambridge and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute used whole genome sequencing to trace the spread of an outbreak of meticillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in Rosie Hospital's special care baby unit. Prospective sequencing then led them to screen staff and identify the potential source of infection. The researchers reported that the cost of DNA sequencing for the infection was half of the 10,000 pounds spent by the hospital to combat the outbreak of MRSA.2012-06-01T00:00:00+0000Undertaken at the University of California's Rady Children's Hospital in San Diego, the study involves the sequencing of all the genes of individuals in 118 families with a neurodevelopment problem. 2012-12-01T00:00:00+0000The first to determine the DNA sequence of insulin, Sanger proved proteins have a defined chemical composition. He was also pivotal to the development of the dideoxy chain-termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, known as the Sanger method. This provided a breakthrough in the sequencing of long stretches of DNA in terms of speed and accuracy and laid the foundation for the Human Genome Project.2013-11-19T00:00:00+0000Twelve patients with HIV treated between 2009 and 2014 report benefits from genetically engineered virus with a rare mutatiuon known to protect against HIV (CCR5 deficiency).2014-03-01T00:00:00+0000The idea was for researchers to test out the MinION so that the company could improve its capability. 2014-04-01T00:00:00+0000The recipients of the prize were the Swedish scientist, Tomas Lindahl, American scientist, Paul Modrich and Turkish-American scientist, Aziz Sancar. DNA can be damaged by a number of factors including normal metabolic activities and environmental conditions like radiation. The mechanism of repair involves a number of processes. Repair of DNA is vital to the integrity of the cell's genome and function in the organism. 2015-10-07T00:00:00+0000Griffin was a leading expert on viruses that cause cancer. She was the first woman appointed to Royal Postgraduate Medical School, Hammersmith Hospital. In 1980 she completed the sequence of the poliovirus, the longest piece of eukaryotic DNA to be sequenced at that time. She devoted her life to understanding the Epstein-Barr virus, the cause of Burkitt's Lymphoma, a deadly form of cancer. 2016-06-13T00:00:00+0000The test detects circulating tumour DNA. It was investigated using blood samples from 161 patients with stage 2 and 3 melanoma who had received surgery. Results showed that skin cancer was much more likely to return within a year of surgery in patients with faults in either BRAF or NRAS genes. R J Lee et al, 'Circulating tumor DNA predicts survival in patients with resected high-risk stage II/III melanoma', Annals of Oncology, mdx717, https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdx7172017-11-03T00:00:00+0000Discovery made as a result of study of 177 members of the Old Order of Amish community in Indiana. S. Khan, et al, 'A null mutation in SERPINE1 protects against biological aging in humans', Science Advances, 3/11 (2017), DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aao16172017-11-15T00:00:00+0000M Jain et al, 'Nanopore sequencing and assembly of a human genome with ultra-long reads', Nature Biotechnology, 36 (2018), 338-45. 2018-01-29T00:00:00+0000Sulston was a biologist who played a central role in sequencing the genome of the Caenorhabditis elegans, a transparent nematode (roundworm). It was the first animal to have its genome sequenced. Based on his work with the nematode Sulston helped set up the project to sequence the human genome which he did as director of the Sanger Centre. The first draft of the human genome sequence was completed in 2000. Sulston shared the Nobel Prize in 2002 for identifying how genes regulate the life cycle of cells through apoptosis. 2018-03-09T00:00:00+0000The test analyses a group of 21 genes found in breast cancer and works out what the risk is of cancer recurring. A trial supported by the National Cancer Institute with 10,273 patients with the most common forms of breast cancer, showed that the test was highly accurate in determining which women would benefit most from chemotherapy after an operation to remove the cancer and who could be safely spared such treatment. The trial was led by Joseph A Sparano at the Albert Einstein Cancer Center, New York. Results from the trial, presented to the American Society of Clinical Oncology in California in Chicago, were described by doctors as 'practice changing'. The test, called Oncotype DX, was developed by Genomic Health, a Californian diagnostics company. The trial's results were published in JA Sparano, et al, 'Adjuvant chemotherapy guided by a 21-gene expression assay in breast cancer', New England Journal of Medicine, 379 (July 12 2018), 111-21. 2018-07-12T00:00:00+0000The project, led by Genomics England in partnership with the NHS, sequenced the DNA of both cancer patients and those with rare disorders. Overall 15,000 cancer patients had their DNA analysed, half of whom went on to take part in a clinical trial or receive targeted treatment. One in four participants with rare diseases who had their genomes sequenced received a diagnosis for the first time, thereby paving the way to getting effective treatment. All the sequencing was carried out by the Wellcome Sanger Institute, near Cambridge, in laboratories run by Illumina, a Californian biotechnology company. 2018-12-05T00:00:00+0000Known as 'whole exome sequencing', the test makes it possible to scan for around 20,000 human genes in just 27 hours rather than 10 days as was the case previously. The test was developed by South West Genomic Laboratory Hub and enable quick diagnoses of approximately 5,000 rare conditions like cystic fibrosis. 2019-10-01T00:00:00+0000Berg was an American biochemist. He first made his name in 1971 by demonstrating it was possible to insert DNA from a bacterium into the a virus' DNA, creating what is called recombinant DNA. This he did as part of his work to study viral chromosomes. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1980 for this work. His technique paved the way to the development of genetic engineering and the modern biotechnology industry. Berg was also instrumental in the setting up of the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, in 1975, which drew up the first guidelines for experiments with genetic engineering. 2023-02-15T00:00:00+0000
Date Event People Places
1842First observation of chromosomes by Swiss botanist Karl von NageliNageli
13 Aug 1844Johann Friedrich Miescher was born in Basel, SwitzerlandMiescherUniversity of Tubingen
5 Mar 1846Edouard van Beneden was born in Leuven, Belgianvan Beneden University of Liege
1864 - 1865Nucleus shown to contain genetic substanceHertwig, von Kolliker, Strasburger, Weismann University of Munich, University of Wurzburg, University of Freiburg
1869Discovery of DNAMiescher University of Tubingen
25 Feb 1869Phoebus Levene was born in Sagor, Russia (now Zagare, Lithuania)LeveneRockefeller University
1877 - 1880Nucleic acid shown to have protein and non-protein componentsKosselUniversity of Tubingen
21 Oct 1877 Oswald T Avery was born in Halifax, CanadaAveryRockefeller University
1878Chromosomes and the process of mitiotic cell division first discoveredFlemmingUniversity of Kiel
1878Chromosome first discoveredFlemming 
1885 - 1901Nucleic acids structure determinedKosselInstitute of Physiology, University of Berlin, University of Marburg
1889Richard Altmann, German pathologist, renames nuclein as nucleic acidAltmannLeipzig University
26 Aug 1895Johann Friedrich Miescher diedMiescherUniversity of Tubingen
1898A nucelotide called tuberculinic acid found to bind to the protein tuberculin. It is now regarded as the precursor to the discovery of DNA methylationRuppelPhilipps University of Marburg
28 Feb 1901Linus C Pauling was born in Portland OR, USAPaulingCalifornia Institute of Technology
1902Chromosomes linked with inheritanceBoveri, GarrodZoological-Zootomical Institute, Columbia University
1903The notion genetics is introducedJohannsenRoyal Veterinary University
24 Sep 1905Severo Ochoa was born in Luarca, SpainOchoaNew York University
2 Oct 1907Alexander R Todd was born in Glasgow, ScotlandToddUniversity of Manchester
1909The term gene is first usedJohannsenUniversity of Copenhagen
1910First description of the building blocks of DNALeveneRockefeller University
28 Apr 1910Edouard van Beneden diedvan Beneden University of Liege
22 Nov 1912Paul Zamecnik was born in Cleveland, Ohio, USAZamecnikMassachusetts General Hospital
1913First mapping of a chromosomeSturtevantColumbia University
14 Dec 1914Solomon Spiegelman was born in Brooklyn, NY, USASpiegelmanUniversity of Minnesota
8 Jun 1916Francis H C Crick was born in Northampton, UKCrickLaboratory of Molecular Biology
15 Dec 1916Maurice H F Wilkins was born in Pongaroa, New ZealandWilkinsKing's College London
3 Mar 1918Arthur Kornberg was born in Brooklyn NY, USAKornbergStanford University
13 Aug 1918Frederick Sanger, twice Nobel Prize winner, bornSangerLaboratory of Molecular Biology
25 Jul 1920Rosalind E Franklin was born in London, UKFranklinKings College London
9 Mar 1921Evelyn Witkin was born in New York City, USAWitkinNew York City
15 Oct 1921Seymour Benzer was born in Brooklyn, NY, USABenzerPurdue University, California Institute of Technology
9 Jan 1922Har Gobind Khorana was born in Raipur, IndiaKhoranaUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
8 Dec 1924John D Smith was born in Southampton, UKJohn D SmithCalifornia Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Molecular Biology
23 May 1925Joshua Lederberg was born in Montclair, NJ, USAJoshua LederbergUniversity of Wisconsin
November 1925T.B. Johnson and R.D. Coghill reported detecting a minor amount of methylated cytosine derivative as byproduct of hyrdrolysis of tuberculinic acid with sulfuric acid but other scientists struggled to replicate their results. Johnson, CoghillYale University
30 Jun 1926Paul Berg was born in New York NY, USABergStanford University
10 Apr 1927Marshall W Nirenberg was born in New York NY, USANirenbergNational Institutes of Health
1928Bacteria shown capable of transformationGriffithPathological Laboratory of the Ministry of Health
6 Apr 1928James D Watson was born in Chicago, IL, USAWatsonLaboratory of Molecular Biology
14 Aug 1928Ray Wu was born in Beijing, ChinaWuCornell University
30 Oct 1928Daniel Nathans was born in Wilmington, Delaware, USANathansJohns Hopkins University
3 Jun 1929Werner Arber was born in Granichen, SwitzerlandArberUniversity of Geneva
8 Oct 1929Franklin W Stahl was born in Boston, Massachusetts, USAStahl California Institute of Technology, University of Missouri, University of Oregon
23 Jan 1930Beverly Griffin was born in Delhi, Louisiana, USAGriffinImperial College
August 1931Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton, her graduate student, provided first experimental proof that genes are positioned on chromosomesMcClintock, CreightonCornell University
23 Aug 1931Hamilton O Smith was born in New York City, USASmithJohns Hopkins University, Celera
1932Sanger attends Bryanston School, Dorset, as boarderSanger 
21 Mar 1932Walter Gilbert was born in Boston MA, USAGilbertHarvard University, Biogen
30 Jun 1935Stanley Norman Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, NJ, USACohenStanford University
1936 - 1940Sanger takes degree in Natural Sciences at Cambridge UniversitySangerCambridge University
10 Jul 1936Herbert Boyer was born in Derry, Pennsylvania, USABoyer University of California San Francisco, Genentech
7 Mar 1938David Baltimore was born in New York CityBaltimoreNew York City
1940 - 1943Sanger studies for a doctorate at Cambridge UniversitySangerCambridge University
6 Sep 1940Phoebus Levene diedLeveneRockefeller University
1941Term 'genetic engineering' first coinedJost 
27 Mar 1942John E Sulston born in Cambridge, UKSulstonLaboratory of Molecular Biology
26 Feb 1943Erwin Schrodinger proposed that life was passed on from generation to generation in a molecular code.Shrodinger 
15 May 1943Oswald claimed DNA to be the 'transforming factor' and the material of genesAveryRockefeller University
6 Sep 1943Richard J Roberts was born in Derby, United KingdomRoberts 
1944Sanger starts working on amino acid composition of insulinSangerCambridge University
1944Evelyn Witkin discovered radiation resistance in bactieraWitkinCold Spring Harbor Laboratory
1 Feb 1944DNA identified as a hereditary agentAvery, MacLeod, McCartyRockefeller University
14 Oct 1946J Craig Venter was born in Salt Lake City, UtahVenterSalt Lake City, Utah
29 Nov 1947Robert Swanson was born in Florida, USASwansonGenentech
1949DNA content of a cells linked to a cell's number of chromosomesVendrely, BoivinPasteur Institute, Strasbourg School of Medicine
1949 - 1950DNA four base ratio shown to be always consistentCargraffColumbia University
September 1949Sickle cell shown to be caused by genetic mutationPaulingCalifornia Institute of Technology
January 1950Esther Lederberg discovered the lambda phageEsther LederbergUniversity of Wisconsin
November 1951Purified DNA and DNA in cells shown to have helical structureWilkinsKings College London
1952First observation of the modification of viruses by bacteriaLuria, HumanUniversity of Illinois
28 Sep 1952Experiments proved DNA, and not proteins, hold the genetic codeHershey, ChaseCarnegie Institution of Washington
2 Apr 1953Nature published Crick and Watson's letter on Molecular Structure of Nucleic AcidsWatson,CrickCambridge
25 Apr 1953Nature published three papers showing the molecular structure of DNA to be a double helixFranklin, Gosling, Crick, Watson, Wilkins. Stokes, WilsonBirkbeck College, Kings College London, Cambridge University
31 Oct 1954Linus Pauling was awarded the Nobel PrizePaulingCalifornia Institute of Technology
1955Sanger completes the full sequence of amino acids in insulinSangerCambridge University
2 Feb 1955Oswald T Avery diedAveryRockefeller University
15 Oct 1955Virus dismantled and put back together to reconstitute a live virusFraenkel-ConratUniversity of California Berkley
1956Transfer RNA (tRNA) discoveredZamecnik, Hoagland, Stephenson,Harvard University
1956First observation of messenger RNA, or mRNAAstrachan, VolkinOak Ridge National Laboratory
16 Apr 1956DNA polymerase isolated and purified and shown to replicate DNAKornberg, Bessman, Simms, LehmanWashington University in St. Louis
1957Victor Ingram breaks the genetic code behind sickle-cell anaemia using Sanger's sequencing techniqueIngram, SangerCambridge University
19 Sep 1957Francis Crick presented the theory that the main function of genetic material is to control the synthesis of proteinsCrickCavendish Laboratory
October 1957First synthesis of DNA in a test tubeKornbergWashington University in St. Louis
1958Sanger awarded his first Nobel Prize in ChemistrySangerCambridge University
16 Apr 1958Rosalind E Franklin diedFranklinKings College London
15 Jul 1958DNA replication explainedMeselson, StahlCalifornia Institute of Technology
16 Mar 1959Existence of gene regulation establishedPardee, Jacob, MonodPasteur Institute, University of California Berkley
May 1959Steps in protein synthesis outlinedZamecnik 
1 Nov 1959New technique published for mapping the gene shows genes are linear and cannot be dividedBenzerPurdue University, California Institute of Technology
1960National Biomedical Research Foundation establishedLedleyGeorgetown University
1960Sanger begins to devise ways to sequence nucleic acids, starting with RNASangerCambridge University
1961 - 1966Genetic code cracked for the first timeKhorana, HolleyUniversity of Wisconsin, Cornell University
1961'Jumping genes', transposable elements, discovered by Barbara McClintockMcLintockCold Spring Harbor Laboratory
13 May 1961Experiment confirms existence of mRNABrenner, Jacob, Meselson University of Cambridge, Pasteur Institute, California Institute of Technology
15 May 1961Coding mechanism for DNA crackedNirenberg, MathaeiNational Institute for Health
1962Sanger moves to the newly created Laboratory of Molecular Biology in CambridgeSangerLaboratory of Molecular Biololgy
23 Jan 1962Idea of restriction and modification enzymes bornArber, DussoixUniversity of Geneva
18 Oct 1962Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine awarded for determining the structure of DNAWatson, Crick, WilkinsLaboratory of Molecular Biology
19 Oct 1962Nobel Prize awarded for uncovering the structure of DNAWatson, Crick, Wilkins, Franklin, GoslingUniversity of Cambridge, King's College London, Birkbeck College
May 1964Evelyn Witkin discovered that UV mutagenesis in E. coli could be reversed through dark exposureWitkinCold Spring Harbor Laboratory
1965Transfer RNA is the first nucleic acid molecule to be sequencedHolleyCornell University
1965First comprehensive protein sequence and structure computer data published as 'Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure'Dayhoff, Ledley, EckNational Biomedical Research Foundation, Georgetown University
1965Ledley publishes Uses of Computers in Biology and MedicineLedleyNational Biomedical Research Foundation
1965Sanger and colleagues publish two-dimension partition sequencing methodSanger, Brownlee, BarrellLaboratory of Molecular Biology
18 Jan 1965First summary of the genetic code was completedNirenberg, Mathaei, OchoaNational Institutes of Health
1 Oct 1965Werner Arber predicted restriction enzymes could be used as a labortory tool to cleave DNAArberUniversity of Geneva
1966Discovery ligase, an enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strandsGellert, Lehman, Richardson, Hurwitz 
1967First automatic protein sequencer developedEdman, BeggSt Vincent's School of Medical Research
September 1967Chromosome with a specific gene isolated from hybrid cells produced from fused mouse and human cellsWeiss, GreenNew York University
14 Dec 1967Functional, 5,000-nucleotide-long bacteriophage genome assembledGoulian, KornbergStanford University, Chicao University
1968The first partial sequence of a viral DNA is reportedWu, KaiserCornell University, Stanford University Medical School
1968Paul Berg started experiments to generate recombinant DNA moleculesBergStanford University
1969First principles for PCR publishedKhorana, KleppeUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison
1969New species of bacterium is isolated from hot spring in Yellowstone National Park by Thomas BrockBrockCase Western Reserve University
1969New idea for generating recombinant DNA conceivedLobhanStanford University
July 1969Discovery of methylase, an enzyme, found to add protective methyl groups to DNAArber, LinnUniversity of Geneva
1970First complete gene synthesised KhoranaUniversity of Wisconsin
June 1970First method published for staining human or other mammalian chromosomes Casperson, Zech, Johansson, ModestKarolinska Institute
July 1970First restriction enzyme isolated and characterisedSmith, WilcoxJohns Hopkins University
27 Jul 1970Reverse transcriptase first isolatedBaltimore, Temin, MizutaniMassachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Wisconsin
September 1970Mertz started her doctorate in biochemistry at Stanford University under Paul BergMertz, Berg 
1971Process called repair replication for synthesising short DNA duplexes and single-stranded DNA by polymerases is publishedKhorana, KleppeMIT
1971First plasmid bacterial cloning vector constructedBerg, Mertz, JacksonStanford University
May 1971Complete sequence of bacteriophage lambda DNA reportedWu, TaylorCornell University
June 1971Janet Mertz forced to halt experiment to clone recombinant DNA in bacteria after safety concerns raisedMertz, Berg, PollackStanford University
December 1971First experiments published demonstrating the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNADanna, NathansJohns Hopkins University
26 Sep 1972 - 4 Sep 1972First time possible biohazards of recombinant DNA technology publicly discussedZinderEMBO
1 Oct 1972First recombinant DNA generatedBerg, Jackson, SymonsStanford University
November 1972Janet Mertz and Ronald Davis published first easy-to-use technique for constructing recombinant DNA showed that when DNA is cleaved with EcoRI, a restriction enzyme, it has sticky endsMertz, DavisStanford University
1973The sequencing of 24 basepairs is reportedGilbert, MaxamHarvard University
1973 - 1976Discovery of DNA repair mechanism in bacteria - the SOS responseWitkin, RadmanCold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Free University of Brussels
1 Mar 1973Ames test developed that identifies chemicals that damage DNAAmes, Lee, DurstonUniversity of California Berkeley
10 Jun 1973 - 13 Jun 1973First international workshop on human gene mapping heldRuddle 
1 Nov 1973First time DNA was successfully transferred from one life form to anotherCohen, Chang, BoyerStanford University, University of California San Francisco
1974Regulation begins for recombinant genetic research 
1 May 1974Recombinant DNA successfuly reproduced in Escherichia coliMarrow, Cohen, Chang, Boyer, Goodman, HellingStanford University, University of California San Francisco
July 1974Temporary moratorium called for on genetic engineering until measures taken to deal with potential biohazardsBerg, Baltimore, Boyer, Cohen 
January 1975Mertz completed her doctorate MertzStanford University
1975Sanger and Coulson publish their plus minus method for DNA sequencingSanger, CoulsonLaboratory of Molecular Biology
1975DNA methylation suggested as mechanism behind X-chomosome silencing in embryosRiggs, Sager, KitchenCity of Hope National Medical Center, Harvard University
1975DNA methylation proposed as important mechanism for the control of gene expression in higher organismsHoilliday, PughNational Institute for Medical Research
February 1975Asilomar Conference called for voluntary moratorium on genetic engineering researchBerg 
1976Yeast genes expressed in E. coli bacteria for the first time 
11 Mar 1976Proto-oncogenes suggested to be part of the genetic machinery of normal cells and play important function in the developing cellBishop, Varmus, Stehelin, VogtUniversity of California San Francisco
April 1976Genentech foundedSwanson, BoyerGenentech Inc
23 Jun 1976NIH released first guidelines for recombinant DNA experimentation 
1977Human growth hormone genetically engineered 
1977Complete sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA determinedSangerLaboratory of Molecular Biology
1977First computer programme written to help with the compilation and analysis of DNA sequence dataMcCallumLaboratory of Molecular Biology
February 1977Two different DNA sequencing methods published that allow for the rapid sequencing of long stretches of DNASanger, Maxam, GilbertHarvard University, Laboratory of Molecular Biology
1978Human insulin produced in E-coliGenentech
October 1978Nobel Prize given in recognition of discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to the problems of molecular geneticsArber, Nathans, SmithJohns Hopkins University, University of Geneva
December 1978Biogen filed preliminary UK patent for technique to clone hepatitis B DNA and antigensKenneth MurrayBiogen, University of Edinburgh
1979First DNA fragments of Epstein Barr Virus cloned Griffin, LindahlImperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratories, University of Gothenberg
February 1979University of Edinburgh scientists published the successful isolation and cloning DNA fragments of the hepatitis B virus in Escherichia coliBurrell, Mackay, Greenaway, Hofschneider, K MurrayUniversity of Edinburgh, Microbiological Research Establishment, Biogen
May 1979 - Oct 1979Pasteur Institute scientists reported successful cloning of hepatitis B DNA in Escherichia coliGalibert, Mandart, Fitoussi, Tiollais, Charnay, HampePasteur Institute
30 Aug 1979UCSF scientists announced the successful cloning and expression of HBsAg in Escherichia coliValenzuela, Gray, Quiroga, Zaldivar, Goodman, RutterUniversity of California San Francisco, Merck
21 Dec 1979Biogen applied for European patent to clone fragment of DNA displaying hepatitis B antigen specificityMurrayBiogen
1980Genetic engineering recognised for patenting 
1980First patent awarded for gene cloningCohen, BoyerStanford University Medical School
1980Cesar Milstein proposed the use of recombinant DNA to improve monoclonal antibodiesMilsteinLaboratory of Molecular Biology
1980Sanger awarded his second Nobel Prize in ChemistrySanger, GilbertHarvard University, Laboratory of Molecular Biology
January 1980European Molecular Biology Laboratory convenes meeting on Computing and DNA SequencesEMBL
1980Polyoma virus DNA sequencedGriffin, Soeda, Arrand, WalshImperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratories
31 Jul 1980UCSF scientists published method to culture HBsAg antigens in cancer cellsEdman, Gray, Valenzuela, Rall, RutterUniversity of California San Francisco
September 1980Scientists reported the first successful development of transgenic miceBarbosa, Gordon, Plotkin, Ruddle, ScangosYale University
15 Sep 1980Largest nucleic acid sequence database in the world made available free over telephone networkDayhoffNational Biomedical Research Foundation, Georgetown University
1981First genetically-engineered plant reported 
1981First genetically cloned mice 
July 1981First evidence provided to show that DNA methylation involved in silencing X-chromosomeCompere, PalmitterHoward Hughes Medical Institute
July 1981UCSF and Merck filed patent to snthesise HBsAg in recombinant yeastRutterUniversity of California San Francisco, Merck
10 Jul 1981Complete library of overlapping DNA fragments of Epstein Barr Virus clonedGriffin, Arrand, Walsh, Bjorck, RymoImperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratories, University of Gothenberg
1982Whole genome sequencing method is introduced for DNA sequencing 
1982 - 1985Studies reveal azacitidine, a cytoxic agent developed by Upjohn, inhibits DNA methylation 
June 1982NIH agrees to provide US$3.2 million over 5 years to establish and maintain a nucleic sequence database 
October 1982First recombinant DNA based drug approvedGenentech Inc
1983Sanger retiresSangerLaboratory of Molecular Biology
6 Jan 1983Widespread loss of DNA methylation found on cytosine-guanine (CpG) islands in tumour samplesFeinberg, VogelsteinJohns Hopkins University
20 Jan 1983Solomon Spiegelman diedSpiegelmanUniversity of Minnesota
1983Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) starts to be developed as a technique to amplify DNAMullisCetus Corporation
June 1984Results from PCR experiments start being reportedMullisCetus Corporation
1 Jun 1984Genetically engineered vaccine against hepatitis B reported to have positive trial resultsScolnick, McLean, West, McAleer , Miller, BuynakMerck, University California San Francisco
10 Sep 1984First genetic fingerprint revealedJeffreysUniversity of Leicester
1984First chimeric monoclonal antibodies developed, laying foundation for safer and more effective monoclonal antibody therapeuticsNeuberger, Rabbitts, Morrison, Oi, Herzenberg, Boulianne, Schulman, HozumiLaboratory of Molecular Biology, Stanford Univerity Medical School
December 1984Carol Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn announced the discovery of telomerase, an enzyme that adds extra DNA bases to the ends of chromosomesBlackburn, GreiderUniversity of California Berkeley
January 1985DNA methylation found to occur on specific DNA segments called CpG islandsBird, Taggart, Fromer, Miller, MacleodEdinburgh University, Kanematsu Laboratories, Columbia University
March 1985Mullis and Cetus Corporation filed patent for the PCR techniqueMullisCetus Corporation
7 Mar 1985DNA fingerprinting principle laid out JeffreysUniversity of Leicester
17 May 19851st legal case resolved using DNA fingerprintingJeffreysUniversity of Leicester
20 Dec 1985The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique was publishedMullisCetus Corporation
1986First machine developed for automating DNA sequencingHood, Smith, HunkapillerCalifornia Institute of Technology, Applied Biosystems
30 Apr 1986Plans for sequencing human genome first laid outGilbert, Watson, Berg 
May 1986First humanised monoclonal antibody createdDear, Foote, Jones, Neuberger, WinterLaboratory of Molecular Biology
1986First genetically engineered vaccine against hepatitis B approvedScolnickMerck
June 1986Interferon approved for treating hairy cell leukaemia 
December 1986Genetically engineered hepatitis B vaccine, Engerix-B, approved in BelgiumSmithKline Biologicals
18 Dec 1986Results released from first small-scale clinical trial of recombinant interferon-alpha therapy for post-transfusion chronic hepatitis BHoofnagle, Mullen, Jones, Rustgi, Di Bisceglie, Peters, Waggoner, ParkNational Institutes of Health
1987mRNA encapsulated into liposome made with cationic lipids injected into mouse cells shown to produce proteinsMalone, Felgner, VernaSalk Institute for Biological Sciences, Syntex
1988Campath-1H is created - the first clinically useful humanised monoclonal antibody.Winter, Waldmann, Reichmann, ClarkCambridge University, Laboratory of Molecular Biology
1988US Congress funds genome sequencing 
April 1988Development of first rapid search computer programme to identify genes in a new sequencePearson, Lipman 
12 Apr 1988OncoMouse patent grantedLeder, StewartHarvard University
20 Oct 1988Cloning of first mammalian enzyme (DNA methyltransferase, DNMT) that catalyses transfer of methyl group to DNA Bestor, Laudano, Mattaliano, IngramMassachusetts Institute of Technology
January 1989Genetically engineered hepatitis B vaccine, Engerix-B, approved in USSmithKline Biologicals
May 1989Genetically engineered hepatitis B vaccine, GenHevac, approved in FrancePasteur Vaccins
25 May 1989David Deamer draws the first sketch to use a biological pore to sequence DNA 
September 1989DNA methylation suggested to inactivate tumour suppressor genesGreger, Passarge, Hopping, Messmer, HorsthemkeInstitute of Human Genetics
1 Feb 1990First pitch for US Human Genome Project 
1 Oct 1990Human Genome Project formally launched 
December 1990BRCA1, a single gene on chromosome 17, shown to be responsible for many breast and ovarian cancersKing, Lee, Newman, Morrow, Anderson, HueyUniversity of California Berkeley
21 Dec 1990BRCA1 gene linked with inherited predisposition to cancerKingUniversity of California Berkley
1992GenBank is integrated into the NIH National Center for Biotechnology Information 
1 Mar 1992Method devised to isolate methylated cytosine residues in individual DNA strands providing avenue to undertake DNA methylation genomic sequencing 
13 Jul 1992FDA approved the use of genetically engineered interferon-alpha, Intron A, for the treatment of hepatitis BSchering-Plough
1 Oct 1992First experimental evidence showing links between diet and DNA methylation and its relationship with cancerZapisek, Cronin, Lyn-Cook, PoirierFDA, National Center for Toxicological Research
13 Oct 1993Cetus Corporation was sold to Chiron and its patent rights sold for US$300 million to Hoffman-La RocheCape, Farley, Glaser MullisCetus Corporation, Chiron, Hoffman-La Roche
1 Nov 1993Severo Ochoa diedOchoaNew York University
30 Dec 1993FDA appproved genetically engineered enzyme drug for cystic fibrosisSnakGenentech
19 Aug 1994Linus C Pauling diedPaulingCalifornia Institute of Technology
22 Dec 1994First chimeric monoclonal antibody therapeutic approved for marketColler, SchoemakerCentocor, State University of New York
21 Apr 1995First evidence published to demonstrate reduced DNA methylation contributes to formation of tumoursLaird, Jackson-Grusby, Fazeli, Dickinson, Jung, Li, Weinberg, JaenischMassachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts General Hospital
28 Jul 1995First complete genome sequence published for a self-replicating free-living organismVenter, Fleischmann, Adams, White, Clayton, Kirkness, Bult, Tomb, Dougherty, MerrickThe Institute for Genomic Research, Johns Hopkins
1996Complete genome sequence of the first eukaryotic organism, the yeast S. cerevisiae, is published  
1996Pyrosequencing is introduced for DNA sequencingRonaghi, NyrenRoyal Institute of Technology
10 Jan 1997Alexander R Todd diedToddUniversity of Manchester
December 1997First humanised monoclonal antibody approved for marketQueenProtein Design Labs, Roche
May 1998Commercial Human Genome Project launchedVenterCelera Genomics
11 Jun 1998Complete genome sequence of bacteria that causes tuberculosis published Cole, Brosch, Parkhill, Garnier, Churcher, Harris, GordonWellcome Trust Sanger Institute, National Institutes of Health, Technical University of Denmark
17 Jul 1998Genome map published for Treponema pallidum, bacteria that causes syphilisFraser, Norris, Weinstock, White, SuttonInstitute for Genomic Research, University of Texas Health Centre
11 Dec 1998Publication of complete genome sequence of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegansSanger Institute, Washington University
1999First human chromosome sequence published 
20 Jul 1999DNA methylation of CpG islands shown to be linked to colorectal cancerToyota, Ahuja, Ohe-Toyota, Herman, Baylin, IssaJohns Hopkins University
16 Nov 1999Daniel Nathans diedNathans Johns Hopkins University
December 1999Term 'nanopore' used for first time in a publicationAkeson, Branton, Kasianowicz, Brandin, Deamer Harvard University, University of California Santa Cruz, National Institute of Science and Technology
6 Dec 1999Robert Swanson diedSwansonGenentech
2000Complete sequences of the genomes of the fruit fly Drosophila and the first plant, Arabidopsis, are published 
26 Jun 2000Human genome draft sequence announced 
14 Dec 2000First complete plant genome sequenced 
February 2001First consensus sequence of human genome publishedSanger, Arber, WuLaboratory of Molecular Biology, Celera, Sanger Institute
2002Complete genome sequence of the first mammalian model organism, the mouse, is published  
12 Jul 2002Polio: First ever virus synthesised from chemicals aloneCello, Paul, WimmerStony Brook University
3 Oct 2002Genomic sequence of the principal malaria parasite and vector completedCelera Genomics, TIGR, Sanger Centre
April 2003The sequence of the first human genome was published 
22 Nov 2003John D Smith diedJohn D SmithCalifornia Institute of Technology, Laboratory of Molecular Biology
2004FDA approved first DNA methylation inhibitor drug, azacitidine (Vidaza®), for treatment of rare bone marrow disorder 
28 Jul 2004Francis H C Crick diedCrickLaboratory of Molecular Biology
5 Oct 2004Maurice H F Wilkins diedWilkinsKing's College London
23 Dec 2004FDA approved first DNA microarray diagnostic device Roche
February 2005Enzyme Ubp10 demonstrated to protect the genome from potential destabilising molecular eventsBerger, EmreWistar Institute
December 2005Oxford Nanopore Technology secured two rounds of seed funding from IP Group PlcOxford Nanopore Technology
2006FDA approved second DNA methylation inhibitior, decatabine (Dacogen) 
May 2006Last human chromosome is sequenced 
2007 - 2016Human Microbiome Project (HMP) carried out
May 2007Oxford Nanopore Technology decides to focus its resources on developing nanopore sequencing for DNA sequencingOxford Nanopore Technology
26 Oct 2007Arthur Kornberg diedKornbergStanford University
30 Nov 2007Seymour Benzer diedBenzerPurdue University, California Institute of Technology
2008Structure of telomerase, an enzyme that conserves the ends of chomosomes, was decodedWistar Institute
2008 - 2012METAgenomics of the Human Intestinal Tract (MetaHIT) project carried out
2 Feb 2008Joshua Lederberg diedJoshua LederbergUniversity of Wisconsin
10 Feb 2008Ray Wu died in Ithaca, USAWuCornell University
27 Dec 2009Paul Zamecnik diedZamecnikMassachusetts General Hospital
January 2011DNA sequencing proves useful to documenting the rapid evolution of Streptococcus pneumococci in response to the application of vaccinesWellcome Trust Sanger Institute
March 2011Hand-held DNA sequencer (MinION) successfully used to sequence first piece of DNAClive BrownOxford Nanopore Technology
9 Nov 2011Har Gobind Khorana diedKhoranaUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
15 Feb 2012 - 18 Feb 2012MinION presented in public for first time Clive BrownOxford Nanopore Technology
June 2012DNA sequencing helps identify the source of an MRSA outbreak in a neornatal intensive care unitPeacock, ParkhillCambridge University, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute
December 2012DNA sequencing utilised for identifying neurological disease conditions different from those given in the original diagnosisUniversity of California San Diego
19 Nov 2013Fred Sanger, the inventor of DNA sequencing, died at the age of 95SangerCambridge
March 2014Promising results announced from trial conducted with HIV patients 
April 2014Oxford Nanopore Technology released its palm-sized DNA sequencer to researchers through its MinION Access ProgrammeOxford Nanopore Technology
7 Oct 2015Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to scientists for understanding the process of DNA repairLindahl, Modrich, SancarFrancis Crick Institute, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of North Carolina
13 Jun 2016Beverly Griffin diedGriffinImperial College
3 Nov 2017Research showed simple blood test can identify patients at most risk of skin cancer returningLee, Gremel, Marshall, Myers, Fisher, Dunn, Dhomen, Corrie, Middleton, Lorigan, MaraisUniversity of Manchester
15 Nov 2017Rare mutation of gene called Serpine 1 discovered to protect against biological ageing processKhan, Shah, Klyachko, Baldridge, Eren, Place, Aviv, Puterman, Lloyd-Jones, Heiman, Miyata, Gupta, Shapiro, VaughanNorthwestern University, University of British Columbia, New Jersey Medical School, Tohoku University,
29 Jan 2018MinION shown to be promising tool for sequencing human genomeLoman, Quick, Jain, Koren, Miga, Rand, Sasani, Tyson, Beggs, Dilthey, Fiddes, Malla, Marriot, Nieto, O'Grady, Olsen, Pedersen, Rhie, Richardson, Quinlan, Snutch, Tee, Paten, Philippy, Simpson, LooseUniversity of Birmingham, University of Nottingham, University of Utah, University of British Columbia, University of East Anglia, Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, University of California Santa Cruz, National Human Genome Research Institute
9 Mar 2018John E Sulson diedSulstonLaboratory of Molecular Biology, Sanger Institute
12 Jul 2018Genetic test shown to accurately predict which women benefit from chemotherapySparanoGenomic Health
5 Dec 2018Genomics England completed sequencing 100,000 whole genomesCaulfieldSanger Institute, Illumina
October 2019NHS introduced new fast-track DNA test to scan for rare diseases in babies and childrenSouth West Genomic Laboratory Hub
15 Feb 2023Paul Berg diedBergStanford University

1842

First observation of chromosomes by Swiss botanist Karl von Nageli

13 Aug 1844

Johann Friedrich Miescher was born in Basel, Switzerland

5 Mar 1846

Edouard van Beneden was born in Leuven, Belgian

1864 - 1865

Nucleus shown to contain genetic substance

1869

Discovery of DNA

25 Feb 1869

Phoebus Levene was born in Sagor, Russia (now Zagare, Lithuania)

1877 - 1880

Nucleic acid shown to have protein and non-protein components

21 Oct 1877

Oswald T Avery was born in Halifax, Canada

1878

Chromosomes and the process of mitiotic cell division first discovered

1878

Chromosome first discovered

1885 - 1901

Nucleic acids structure determined

1889

Richard Altmann, German pathologist, renames nuclein as nucleic acid

26 Aug 1895

Johann Friedrich Miescher died

1898

A nucelotide called tuberculinic acid found to bind to the protein tuberculin. It is now regarded as the precursor to the discovery of DNA methylation

28 Feb 1901

Linus C Pauling was born in Portland OR, USA

1902

Chromosomes linked with inheritance

1903

The notion genetics is introduced

24 Sep 1905

Severo Ochoa was born in Luarca, Spain

2 Oct 1907

Alexander R Todd was born in Glasgow, Scotland

1909

The term gene is first used

1910

First description of the building blocks of DNA

28 Apr 1910

Edouard van Beneden died

22 Nov 1912

Paul Zamecnik was born in Cleveland, Ohio, USA

1913

First mapping of a chromosome

14 Dec 1914

Solomon Spiegelman was born in Brooklyn, NY, USA

8 Jun 1916

Francis H C Crick was born in Northampton, UK

15 Dec 1916

Maurice H F Wilkins was born in Pongaroa, New Zealand

3 Mar 1918

Arthur Kornberg was born in Brooklyn NY, USA

13 Aug 1918

Frederick Sanger, twice Nobel Prize winner, born

25 Jul 1920

Rosalind E Franklin was born in London, UK

9 Mar 1921

Evelyn Witkin was born in New York City, USA

15 Oct 1921

Seymour Benzer was born in Brooklyn, NY, USA

9 Jan 1922

Har Gobind Khorana was born in Raipur, India

8 Dec 1924

John D Smith was born in Southampton, UK

23 May 1925

Joshua Lederberg was born in Montclair, NJ, USA

Nov 1925

T.B. Johnson and R.D. Coghill reported detecting a minor amount of methylated cytosine derivative as byproduct of hyrdrolysis of tuberculinic acid with sulfuric acid but other scientists struggled to replicate their results.

30 Jun 1926

Paul Berg was born in New York NY, USA

10 Apr 1927

Marshall W Nirenberg was born in New York NY, USA

1928

Bacteria shown capable of transformation

6 Apr 1928

James D Watson was born in Chicago, IL, USA

14 Aug 1928

Ray Wu was born in Beijing, China

30 Oct 1928

Daniel Nathans was born in Wilmington, Delaware, USA

3 Jun 1929

Werner Arber was born in Granichen, Switzerland

8 Oct 1929

Franklin W Stahl was born in Boston, Massachusetts, USA

23 Jan 1930

Beverly Griffin was born in Delhi, Louisiana, USA

Aug 1931

Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton, her graduate student, provided first experimental proof that genes are positioned on chromosomes

23 Aug 1931

Hamilton O Smith was born in New York City, USA

1932

Sanger attends Bryanston School, Dorset, as boarder

21 Mar 1932

Walter Gilbert was born in Boston MA, USA

30 Jun 1935

Stanley Norman Cohen was born in Perth Amboy, NJ, USA

1936 - 1940

Sanger takes degree in Natural Sciences at Cambridge University

10 Jul 1936

Herbert Boyer was born in Derry, Pennsylvania, USA

7 Mar 1938

David Baltimore was born in New York City

1940 - 1943

Sanger studies for a doctorate at Cambridge University

6 Sep 1940

Phoebus Levene died

1941

Term 'genetic engineering' first coined

27 Mar 1942

John E Sulston born in Cambridge, UK

26 Feb 1943

Erwin Schrodinger proposed that life was passed on from generation to generation in a molecular code.

15 May 1943

Oswald claimed DNA to be the 'transforming factor' and the material of genes

6 Sep 1943

Richard J Roberts was born in Derby, United Kingdom

1944

Sanger starts working on amino acid composition of insulin

1944

Evelyn Witkin discovered radiation resistance in bactiera

1 Feb 1944

DNA identified as a hereditary agent

14 Oct 1946

J Craig Venter was born in Salt Lake City, Utah

29 Nov 1947

Robert Swanson was born in Florida, USA

1949

DNA content of a cells linked to a cell's number of chromosomes

1949 - 1950

DNA four base ratio shown to be always consistent

Sep 1949

Sickle cell shown to be caused by genetic mutation

Jan 1950

Esther Lederberg discovered the lambda phage

Nov 1951

Purified DNA and DNA in cells shown to have helical structure

1952

First observation of the modification of viruses by bacteria

28 Sep 1952

Experiments proved DNA, and not proteins, hold the genetic code

2 Apr 1953

Nature published Crick and Watson's letter on Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids

25 Apr 1953

Nature published three papers showing the molecular structure of DNA to be a double helix

31 Oct 1954

Linus Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize

1955

Sanger completes the full sequence of amino acids in insulin

2 Feb 1955

Oswald T Avery died

15 Oct 1955

Virus dismantled and put back together to reconstitute a live virus

1956

Transfer RNA (tRNA) discovered

1956

First observation of messenger RNA, or mRNA

16 Apr 1956

DNA polymerase isolated and purified and shown to replicate DNA

1957

Victor Ingram breaks the genetic code behind sickle-cell anaemia using Sanger's sequencing technique

19 Sep 1957

Francis Crick presented the theory that the main function of genetic material is to control the synthesis of proteins

Oct 1957

First synthesis of DNA in a test tube

1958

Sanger awarded his first Nobel Prize in Chemistry

16 Apr 1958

Rosalind E Franklin died

15 Jul 1958

DNA replication explained

16 Mar 1959

Existence of gene regulation established

May 1959

Steps in protein synthesis outlined

1 Nov 1959

New technique published for mapping the gene shows genes are linear and cannot be divided

1960

National Biomedical Research Foundation established

1960

Sanger begins to devise ways to sequence nucleic acids, starting with RNA

1961 - 1966

Genetic code cracked for the first time

1961

'Jumping genes', transposable elements, discovered by Barbara McClintock

13 May 1961

Experiment confirms existence of mRNA

15 May 1961

Coding mechanism for DNA cracked

1962

Sanger moves to the newly created Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge

23 Jan 1962

Idea of restriction and modification enzymes born

18 Oct 1962

Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine awarded for determining the structure of DNA

19 Oct 1962

Nobel Prize awarded for uncovering the structure of DNA

May 1964

Evelyn Witkin discovered that UV mutagenesis in E. coli could be reversed through dark exposure

1965

Transfer RNA is the first nucleic acid molecule to be sequenced

1965

First comprehensive protein sequence and structure computer data published as 'Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure'

1965

Ledley publishes Uses of Computers in Biology and Medicine

1965

Sanger and colleagues publish two-dimension partition sequencing method

18 Jan 1965

First summary of the genetic code was completed

1 Oct 1965

Werner Arber predicted restriction enzymes could be used as a labortory tool to cleave DNA

1966

Discovery ligase, an enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands

1967

First automatic protein sequencer developed

Sep 1967

Chromosome with a specific gene isolated from hybrid cells produced from fused mouse and human cells

14 Dec 1967

Functional, 5,000-nucleotide-long bacteriophage genome assembled

1968

The first partial sequence of a viral DNA is reported

1968

Paul Berg started experiments to generate recombinant DNA molecules

1969

First principles for PCR published

1969

New species of bacterium is isolated from hot spring in Yellowstone National Park by Thomas Brock

1969

New idea for generating recombinant DNA conceived

Jul 1969

Discovery of methylase, an enzyme, found to add protective methyl groups to DNA

1970

First complete gene synthesised

Jun 1970

First method published for staining human or other mammalian chromosomes

Jul 1970

First restriction enzyme isolated and characterised

27 Jul 1970

Reverse transcriptase first isolated

Sep 1970

Mertz started her doctorate in biochemistry at Stanford University under Paul Berg

1971

Process called repair replication for synthesising short DNA duplexes and single-stranded DNA by polymerases is published

1971

First plasmid bacterial cloning vector constructed

May 1971

Complete sequence of bacteriophage lambda DNA reported

Jun 1971

Janet Mertz forced to halt experiment to clone recombinant DNA in bacteria after safety concerns raised

Dec 1971

First experiments published demonstrating the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA

26 Sep 1972 - 4 Sep 1972

First time possible biohazards of recombinant DNA technology publicly discussed

1 Oct 1972

First recombinant DNA generated

Nov 1972

Janet Mertz and Ronald Davis published first easy-to-use technique for constructing recombinant DNA showed that when DNA is cleaved with EcoRI, a restriction enzyme, it has sticky ends

1973

The sequencing of 24 basepairs is reported

1973 - 1976

Discovery of DNA repair mechanism in bacteria - the SOS response

1 Mar 1973

Ames test developed that identifies chemicals that damage DNA

10 Jun 1973 - 13 Jun 1973

First international workshop on human gene mapping held

1 Nov 1973

First time DNA was successfully transferred from one life form to another

1974

Regulation begins for recombinant genetic research

1 May 1974

Recombinant DNA successfuly reproduced in Escherichia coli

Jul 1974

Temporary moratorium called for on genetic engineering until measures taken to deal with potential biohazards

Jan 1975

Mertz completed her doctorate

1975

Sanger and Coulson publish their plus minus method for DNA sequencing

1975

DNA methylation suggested as mechanism behind X-chomosome silencing in embryos

1975

DNA methylation proposed as important mechanism for the control of gene expression in higher organisms

Feb 1975

Asilomar Conference called for voluntary moratorium on genetic engineering research

1976

Yeast genes expressed in E. coli bacteria for the first time

11 Mar 1976

Proto-oncogenes suggested to be part of the genetic machinery of normal cells and play important function in the developing cell

Apr 1976

Genentech founded

23 Jun 1976

NIH released first guidelines for recombinant DNA experimentation

1977

Human growth hormone genetically engineered

1977

Complete sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA determined

1977

First computer programme written to help with the compilation and analysis of DNA sequence data

Feb 1977

Two different DNA sequencing methods published that allow for the rapid sequencing of long stretches of DNA

1978

Human insulin produced in E-coli

Oct 1978

Nobel Prize given in recognition of discovery of restriction enzymes and their application to the problems of molecular genetics

Dec 1978

Biogen filed preliminary UK patent for technique to clone hepatitis B DNA and antigens

1979

First DNA fragments of Epstein Barr Virus cloned

Feb 1979

University of Edinburgh scientists published the successful isolation and cloning DNA fragments of the hepatitis B virus in Escherichia coli

May 1979 - Oct 1979

Pasteur Institute scientists reported successful cloning of hepatitis B DNA in Escherichia coli

30 Aug 1979

UCSF scientists announced the successful cloning and expression of HBsAg in Escherichia coli

21 Dec 1979

Biogen applied for European patent to clone fragment of DNA displaying hepatitis B antigen specificity

1980

Genetic engineering recognised for patenting

1980

First patent awarded for gene cloning

1980

Cesar Milstein proposed the use of recombinant DNA to improve monoclonal antibodies

1980

Sanger awarded his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Jan 1980

European Molecular Biology Laboratory convenes meeting on Computing and DNA Sequences

1980

Polyoma virus DNA sequenced

31 Jul 1980

UCSF scientists published method to culture HBsAg antigens in cancer cells

Sep 1980

Scientists reported the first successful development of transgenic mice

15 Sep 1980

Largest nucleic acid sequence database in the world made available free over telephone network

1981

First genetically-engineered plant reported

1981

First genetically cloned mice

Jul 1981

First evidence provided to show that DNA methylation involved in silencing X-chromosome

Jul 1981

UCSF and Merck filed patent to snthesise HBsAg in recombinant yeast

10 Jul 1981

Complete library of overlapping DNA fragments of Epstein Barr Virus cloned

1982

Whole genome sequencing method is introduced for DNA sequencing

1982 - 1985

Studies reveal azacitidine, a cytoxic agent developed by Upjohn, inhibits DNA methylation

Jun 1982

NIH agrees to provide US$3.2 million over 5 years to establish and maintain a nucleic sequence database

Oct 1982

First recombinant DNA based drug approved

1983

Sanger retires

6 Jan 1983

Widespread loss of DNA methylation found on cytosine-guanine (CpG) islands in tumour samples

20 Jan 1983

Solomon Spiegelman died

1983

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) starts to be developed as a technique to amplify DNA

Jun 1984

Results from PCR experiments start being reported

1 Jun 1984

Genetically engineered vaccine against hepatitis B reported to have positive trial results

10 Sep 1984

First genetic fingerprint revealed

1984

First chimeric monoclonal antibodies developed, laying foundation for safer and more effective monoclonal antibody therapeutics

Dec 1984

Carol Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn announced the discovery of telomerase, an enzyme that adds extra DNA bases to the ends of chromosomes

Jan 1985

DNA methylation found to occur on specific DNA segments called CpG islands

Mar 1985

Mullis and Cetus Corporation filed patent for the PCR technique

7 Mar 1985

DNA fingerprinting principle laid out

17 May 1985

1st legal case resolved using DNA fingerprinting

20 Dec 1985

The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique was published

1986

First machine developed for automating DNA sequencing

1986

Plans for sequencing human genome first laid out

May 1986

First humanised monoclonal antibody created

1986

First genetically engineered vaccine against hepatitis B approved

Jun 1986

Interferon approved for treating hairy cell leukaemia

Dec 1986

Genetically engineered hepatitis B vaccine, Engerix-B, approved in Belgium

18 Dec 1986

Results released from first small-scale clinical trial of recombinant interferon-alpha therapy for post-transfusion chronic hepatitis B

1987

mRNA encapsulated into liposome made with cationic lipids injected into mouse cells shown to produce proteins

1988

Campath-1H is created - the first clinically useful humanised monoclonal antibody.

1988

US Congress funds genome sequencing

Apr 1988

Development of first rapid search computer programme to identify genes in a new sequence

12 Apr 1988

OncoMouse patent granted

20 Oct 1988

Cloning of first mammalian enzyme (DNA methyltransferase, DNMT) that catalyses transfer of methyl group to DNA

Jan 1989

Genetically engineered hepatitis B vaccine, Engerix-B, approved in US

May 1989

Genetically engineered hepatitis B vaccine, GenHevac, approved in France

25 May 1989

David Deamer draws the first sketch to use a biological pore to sequence DNA

Sep 1989

DNA methylation suggested to inactivate tumour suppressor genes

Sep 1989

First pitch for US Human Genome Project

1 Oct 1990

Human Genome Project formally launched

Dec 1990

BRCA1, a single gene on chromosome 17, shown to be responsible for many breast and ovarian cancers

21 Dec 1990

BRCA1 gene linked with inherited predisposition to cancer

1992

GenBank is integrated into the NIH National Center for Biotechnology Information

1 Mar 1992

Method devised to isolate methylated cytosine residues in individual DNA strands providing avenue to undertake DNA methylation genomic sequencing

13 Jul 1992

FDA approved the use of genetically engineered interferon-alpha, Intron A, for the treatment of hepatitis B

1 Oct 1992

First experimental evidence showing links between diet and DNA methylation and its relationship with cancer

13 Oct 1993

Cetus Corporation was sold to Chiron and its patent rights sold for US$300 million to Hoffman-La Roche

1 Nov 1993

Severo Ochoa died

30 Dec 1993

FDA appproved genetically engineered enzyme drug for cystic fibrosis

19 Aug 1994

Linus C Pauling died

22 Dec 1994

First chimeric monoclonal antibody therapeutic approved for market

21 Apr 1995

First evidence published to demonstrate reduced DNA methylation contributes to formation of tumours

28 Jul 1995

First complete genome sequence published for a self-replicating free-living organism

1996

Complete genome sequence of the first eukaryotic organism, the yeast S. cerevisiae, is published

1996

Pyrosequencing is introduced for DNA sequencing

10 Jan 1997

Alexander R Todd died

Dec 1997

First humanised monoclonal antibody approved for market

May 1998

Commercial Human Genome Project launched

11 Jun 1998

Complete genome sequence of bacteria that causes tuberculosis published

17 Jul 1998

Genome map published for Treponema pallidum, bacteria that causes syphilis

11 Dec 1998

Publication of complete genome sequence of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans

1999

First human chromosome sequence published

20 Jul 1999

DNA methylation of CpG islands shown to be linked to colorectal cancer

16 Nov 1999

Daniel Nathans died

Dec 1999

Term 'nanopore' used for first time in a publication

6 Dec 1999

Robert Swanson died

2000

Complete sequences of the genomes of the fruit fly Drosophila and the first plant, Arabidopsis, are published

26 Jun 2000

Human genome draft sequence announced

14 Dec 2000

First complete plant genome sequenced

Feb 2001

First consensus sequence of human genome published

2002

Complete genome sequence of the first mammalian model organism, the mouse, is published

12 Jul 2002

Polio: First ever virus synthesised from chemicals alone

3 Oct 2002

Genomic sequence of the principal malaria parasite and vector completed

Apr 2003

The sequence of the first human genome was published

22 Nov 2003

John D Smith died

2004

FDA approved first DNA methylation inhibitor drug, azacitidine (Vidaza®), for treatment of rare bone marrow disorder

28 Jul 2004

Francis H C Crick died

5 Oct 2004

Maurice H F Wilkins died

23 Dec 2004

FDA approved first DNA microarray diagnostic device

Feb 2005

Enzyme Ubp10 demonstrated to protect the genome from potential destabilising molecular events

Dec 2005

Oxford Nanopore Technology secured two rounds of seed funding from IP Group Plc

2006

FDA approved second DNA methylation inhibitior, decatabine (Dacogen)

May 2006

Last human chromosome is sequenced

2007 - 2016

Human Microbiome Project (HMP) carried out

May 2007

Oxford Nanopore Technology decides to focus its resources on developing nanopore sequencing for DNA sequencing

26 Oct 2007

Arthur Kornberg died

30 Nov 2007

Seymour Benzer died

2008

Structure of telomerase, an enzyme that conserves the ends of chomosomes, was decoded

2008 - 2012

METAgenomics of the Human Intestinal Tract (MetaHIT) project carried out

2 Feb 2008

Joshua Lederberg died

10 Feb 2008

Ray Wu died in Ithaca, USA

27 Dec 2009

Paul Zamecnik died

Jan 2011

DNA sequencing proves useful to documenting the rapid evolution of Streptococcus pneumococci in response to the application of vaccines

Mar 2011

Hand-held DNA sequencer (MinION) successfully used to sequence first piece of DNA

9 Nov 2011

Har Gobind Khorana died

15 Feb 2012 - 18 Feb 2012

MinION presented in public for first time

Jun 2012

DNA sequencing helps identify the source of an MRSA outbreak in a neornatal intensive care unit

Dec 2012

DNA sequencing utilised for identifying neurological disease conditions different from those given in the original diagnosis

19 Nov 2013

Fred Sanger, the inventor of DNA sequencing, died at the age of 95

Mar 2014

Promising results announced from trial conducted with HIV patients

Apr 2014

Oxford Nanopore Technology released its palm-sized DNA sequencer to researchers through its MinION Access Programme

7 Oct 2015

Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to scientists for understanding the process of DNA repair

13 Jun 2016

Beverly Griffin died

3 Nov 2017

Research showed simple blood test can identify patients at most risk of skin cancer returning

15 Nov 2017

Rare mutation of gene called Serpine 1 discovered to protect against biological ageing process

29 Jan 2018

MinION shown to be promising tool for sequencing human genome

9 Mar 2018

John E Sulson died

12 Jul 2018

Genetic test shown to accurately predict which women benefit from chemotherapy

5 Dec 2018

Genomics England completed sequencing 100,000 whole genomes

Oct 2019

NHS introduced new fast-track DNA test to scan for rare diseases in babies and children

15 Feb 2023

Paul Berg died

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